9.7 (c)]. This can be represented in the form This is often referred to as Hückel Rule.of two doughtnuts (rings) of electron clouds [Fig. 9.7 (d)], one above and one below the Some examples of aromatic compounds are plane of the hexagonal ring as shown below: given below: (electron cloud) Fig. 9.7 (c) Fig. 9.7 (d) The six π electrons are thus delocalised and can move freely about the six carbon nuclei, instead of any two as shown in Fig. 9.6 (a) or (b). The delocalised π electron cloud is attracted more strongly by the nuclei of the carbon atoms than the electron cloud localised between two carbon atoms. Therefore, presence of delocalised π electrons in benzene makes it more stable than the hypothetical cyclohexatriene. X-Ray diffraction data reveals that benzene is a planar molecule. Had any one of the above structures of benzene (A or B) been correct, 9.5.4 Preparation of Benzene two types of C—C bond lengths were expected. Benzene is commercially isolated from coalHowever, X-ray data indicates that all the tar. However, it may be prepared in thesix C—C bond lengths are of the same order laboratory by the following methods.(139 pm) which is intermediate between C— C single bond (154 pm) and C—C double (i) Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne: bond (133 pm). Thus the absence of pure (Section 9.4.4) double bond in benzene accounts for the (ii) Decarboxylation of aromatic acids: reluctance of benzene to show addition Sodium salt of benzoic acid on heating reactions under normal conditions, thus with sodalime gives benzene. explaining the unusual behaviour of benzene. 9.5.3 Aromaticity Benzene was considered as parent ‘aromatic’ compound. Now, the name is applied to all the ring systems whether or not having benzene (9.70) ring, possessing following characteristics. Reprint 2025-26 322 chemistry (iii) Reduction of phenol: Phenol is reduced (ii) Halogenation: Arenes react with halogens to benzene by passing its vapours over in the presence of a Lewis acid like anhydrous heated zinc dust FeCl3, FeBr3 or AlCl3 to yield haloarenes. (9.71) Chlorobenzene 9.5.5 Properties (9.73) (iii) Sulphonation: The replacement of aPhysical properties hydrogen atom by a sulphonic acid group inAromatic hydrocarbons are non- polar a ring is called sulphonation. It is carried outmolecules and are usually colourless liquids by heating benzene with fuming sulphuricor solids with a characteristic aroma. You are acid (oleum).also familiar with naphthalene balls which are used in toilets and for preservation of clothes because of unique smell of the compound and the moth repellent property. Aromatic hydrocarbons are immiscible with water but are readily miscible with organic solvents. They burn with sooty flame. Chemical properties (9.74) Arenes are characterised by electrophilic (iv) Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction:substitution reactions. However, under When benzene is treated with an alkyl halidespecial conditions they can also undergo in the presence of anhydrous aluminiumaddition and oxidation reactions. chloride, alkylbenene is formed. Electrophilic substitution reactions The common electrophilic substitution reactions of arenes are nitration, halogenation, sulphonation, Friedel Craft’s alkylation and acylation reactions in which attacking reagent is an electrophile (E +) (i) Nitration: A nitro group is introduced (9.75) into benzene ring when benzene is heated with a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid (nitrating mixture). (9.76) Why do we get isopropyl benzene on treating benzene with 1-chloropropane instead of n-propyl benzene? (v) Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction: The reaction of benzene with an acyl halide or (9.72) acid anhydride in the presence of Lewis acids (AlCl3) yields acyl benzene. Nitrobenzene Reprint 2025-26 Hydrocarbons 323 (9.77) In the case of nitration, the electrophile, nitronium ion, is produced by transfer of a proton (from sulphuric acid) to nitric acid in the following manner: (9.78) Step I If excess of electrophilic reagent is used, further substitution reaction may take place in which other hydrogen atoms of benzene Step II ring may also be successively replaced by the electrophile. For example, benzene on treatment with excess of chlorine in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3 can be Protonated Nitronium chlorinated to hexachlorobenzene (C6Cl6) nitric acid ion It is interesting to note that in the process of generation of nitronium ion, sulphuric acid serves as an acid and nitric acid as a base. Thus, it is a simple acid-base equilibrium. (b) F o r m a t i o n o f C a r b o c a t i o n (arenium ion): Attack of electrophile results in the formation of σ-complex or (9.79) 3 arenium ion in which one of the carbon is sp Mechanism of electrophilic substitution hybridised. reactions: According to experimental evidences, SE (S = substitution; E = electrophilic) reactions are supposed to proceed via the following three steps: (a) Generation of the eletrophile sigma complex (arenium ion) (b) Formation of carbocation intermediate The arenium ion gets stabilised by resonance:(c) Removal of proton from the carbocation intermediate (a) Generation of electrophile E ⊕: During chlorination, alkylation and acylation of benzene, anhydrous AlCl3, being a Lewis acid helps in generation of the elctrophile Cl⊕, R ⊕, RC⊕O (acylium ion) respectively by combining with the attacking reagent. Reprint 2025-26 324 chemistry Sigma complex or arenium ion loses its chemical equation: aromatic character because delocalisation of 3 CxHy + (x + ) O2 → x CO2 + H2O n (9.83)electrons stops at sp hybridised carbon. (c) Removal of proton: To restore the 9.5.6 Directive influence of a functional aromatic character, σ -complex releases group in monosubstituted benzene proton from sp3 hybridised carbon on attack – When monosubstituted benzene is subjected by [AlCl4] (in case of halogenation, alkylation – to further substitution, three possible and acylation) and [HSO4] (in case of disubstituted products are not formed in nitration). equal amounts. Two types of behaviour are observed. Either ortho and para products or meta product is predominantly formed. It has also been observed that this behaviour depends on the nature of the substituent already present in the benzene ring and not on the nature of the entering group. This is known as directive influence of substituents. Reasons for ortho/para or meta directive nature of groups are discussed below: Addition reactions Ortho and para directing groups: The Under vigorous conditions, i.e., at high groups which direct the incoming group to temperature and/ or pressure in the presence ortho and para positions are called ortho and of nickel catalyst, hydrogenation of benzene para directing groups. As an example, let us gives cyclohexane. discuss the directive influence of phenolic (–OH) group. Phenol is resonance hybrid of following structures: Cyclohexane (9.80) Under ultra-violet light, three chlorine molecules add to benzene to produce benzene hexachloride, C6H6Cl6 which is also called gammaxane. Benzene hexachloride, It is clear from the above resonating (BHC) structures that the electron density is more on (9.81) o – and p – positions. Hence, the substitution Combustion: When heated in air, benzene takes place mainly at these positions. However, burns with sooty flame producing CO2 and it may be noted that –I effect of – OH group also H2O operates due to which the electron density on 15 ortho and para positions of the benzene ring C H6 + O2 → 6CO2 +3H2 O is slightly reduced. But the overall electron 6 2 (9.82) density increases at these positions of the General combustion reaction for any ring due to resonance. Therefore, –OH group hydrocarbon may be given by the following activates the benzene ring for the attack by Reprint 2025-26 Hydrocarbons 325 an electrophile. Other examples of activating In this case, the overall electron density groups are –NH2, –NHR, –NHCOCH3, –OCH3, on benzene ring decreases making further –CH3, –C2H5, etc. substitution difficult, therefore these groups are also called ‘deactivating groups’. TheIn the case of aryl halides, halogens are moderately deactivating. Because of their electron density on o – and p – position strong – I effect, overall electron density on is comparatively less than that at meta benzene ring decreases. It makes further position. Hence, the electrophile attacks on substitution difficult. However, due to comparatively electron rich meta position resonance the electron density on o– and resulting in meta substitution. p– positions is greater than that at the 9.6 Carcinogenicity and Toxicitym-position. Hence, they are also o– and p – directing groups. Resonance structures of Benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons chlorobenzene are given below: containing more than two benzene rings fused together are toxic and said to possess cancer producing (carcinogenic) property. Such polynuclear hydrocarbons are formed on incomplete combustion of organic materials like tobacco, coal and petroleum. They enter into human body and undergo various biochemical reactions and finally damage DNA and cause cancer. Some of the carcinogenic hydrocarbons are given below (see box). Meta directing group: The groups which direct the incoming group to meta position are called meta directing groups. Some examples of meta directing groups are –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –COR, –COOH, –COOR, –SO3H, etc. Let us take the example of nitro group. Nitro group reduces the electron density in the benzene ring due to its strong–I effect. Nitrobenzene is a resonance hybrid of the following structures. Reprint 2025-26 326 chemistry SUMMARY Hydrocarbons are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons are mainly obtained from coal and petroleum, which are the major sources of energy. Petrochemicals are the prominent starting materials used for the manufacture of a large number of commercially important products. LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) and CNG (compressed natural gas), the main sources of energy for domestic fuels and the automobile industry, are obtained from petroleum. Hydrocarbons are classified as open chain saturated (alkanes) and unsaturated (alkenes and alkynes), cyclic (alicyclic) and aromatic, according to their structure. The important reactions of alkanes are free radical substitution, combustion, oxidation and aromatization. Alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reactions, which are mainly electrophilic additions. Aromatic hydrocarbons, despite having unsaturation, undergo mainly electrophilic substitution reactions. These undergo addition reactions only under special conditions. Alkanes show conformational isomerism due to free rotation along the C–C sigma bonds. Out of staggered and the eclipsed conformations of ethane, staggered conformation is more stable as hydrogen atoms are farthest apart. Alkenes exhibit geometrical (cis-trans) isomerism due to restricted rotation around the carbon–carbon double bond. Benzene and benzenoid compounds show aromatic character. Aromaticity, the property of being aromatic is possessed by compounds having specific electronic structure characterised by Hückel (4n+2)π electron rule. The nature of groups or substituents attached to benzene ring is responsible for activation or deactivation of the benzene ring towards further electrophilic substitution and also for orientation of the incoming group. Some of the polynuclear hydrocarbons having fused benzene ring system have carcinogenic property. EXERCISES 9.1 How do you account for the formation of ethane during chlorination of methane ? 9.2 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds : (a) CH3CH=C(CH3)2 (b) CH2=CH-C≡C-CH3 (c) (d) –CH2–CH2–CH=CH2 (f) CH3(CH2)4 CH (CH2)3 CH3 (e) CH2 –CH (CH3)2 (g) CH3 – CH = CH – CH2 – CH = CH – CH – CH2 – CH = CH2 | C2H5 9.3 For the following compounds, write structural formulas and IUPAC names for all possible isomers having the number of double or triple bond as indicated : (a) C4H8 (one double bond) (b) C5H8 (one triple bond) 9.4 Write IUPAC names of the products obtained by the ozonolysis of the following compounds : (i) Pent-2-ene (ii) 3,4-Dimethylhept-3-ene (iii) 2-Ethylbut-1-ene (iv) 1-Phenylbut-1-ene Reprint 2025-26 Hydrocarbons 327 9.5 An alkene ‘A’ on ozonolysis gives a mixture of ethanal and pentan-3-one. Write structure and IUPAC name of ‘A’. 9.6 An alkene ‘A’ contains three C – C, eight C – H σ bonds and one C – C π bond. ‘A’ on ozonolysis gives two moles of an aldehyde of molar mass 44 u. Write IUPAC name of ‘A’. 9.7 Propanal and pentan-3-one are the ozonolysis products of an alkene? What is the structural formula of the alkene? 9.8 Write chemical equations for combustion reaction of the following hydrocarbons: (i) Butane (ii) Pentene (iii) Hexyne (iv) Toluene 9.9 Draw the cis and trans structures of hex-2-ene. Which isomer will have higher b.p. and why? 9.10 Why is benzene extra ordinarily stable though it contains three double bonds? 9.11 What are the necessary conditions for any system to be aromatic? 9.12 Explain why the following systems are not aromatic? (i) (ii) (iii) 9.13 How will you convert benzene into (i) p-nitrobromobenzene (ii) m- nitrochlorobenzene (iii) p - nitrotoluene (iv) acetophenone? 9.14 In the alkane H3C – CH2 – C(CH3)2 – CH2 – CH(CH3)2, identify 1°,2°,3° carbon atoms and give the number of H atoms bonded to each one of these. 9.15 What effect does branching of an alkane chain has on its boiling point? 9.16 Addition of HBr to propene yields 2-bromopropane, while in the presence of benzoyl peroxide, the same reaction yields 1-bromopropane. Explain and give mechanism. 9.17 Write down the products of ozonolysis of 1,2-dimethylbenzene (o-xylene). How does the result support Kekulé structure for benzene? 9.18 Arrange benzene, n-hexane and ethyne in decreasing order of acidic behaviour. Also give reason for this behaviour. 9.19 Why does benzene undergo electrophilic substitution reactions easily and nucleophilic substitutions with difficulty? 9.20 How would you convert the following compounds into benzene? (i) Ethyne (ii) Ethene (iii) Hexane 9.21 Write structures of all the alkenes which on hydrogenation give 2-methylbutane. 9.22 Arrange the following set of compounds in order of their decreasing relative reactivity with an electrophile, E+ (a) Chlorobenzene, 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene, p-nitrochlorobenzene (b) Toluene, p-H3C – C6H4 – NO2, p-O2N – C6H4 – NO2. 9.23 Out of benzene, m–dinitrobenzene and toluene which will undergo nitration most easily and why? 9.24 Suggest the name of a Lewis acid other than anhydrous aluminium chloride which can be used during ethylation of benzene. 9.25 Why is Wurtz reaction not preferred for the preparation of alkanes containing odd number of carbon atoms? Illustrate your answer by taking one example. Reprint 2025-26

7.11 (ii) 7.12 (i) CH3 CH2 CH2 OH  CH 3 Br (ii) (iii) (iv)  CH 3 3 C  I  C 2 H 5 OH Chemistry 226 Reprint 2025-26 UnitUnitUnitUnit Unit88 Objectives AldehydesAldehydesAldehydes,AldehydesAldehydesAldehydesAldehydesAldehydes,AldehydesAldehydes KetonesKetonestonestonestonestonestonestonestonestones After studying this Unit, you will be able to andandandandandandandandandand CarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylic• write the common and IUPAC names of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids; AcidsAcidscidscidscidscidscidscidscidscids• write the structures of the compounds containing functional groups namely carbonyl and Carbonyl compounds are of utmost importance to organic carboxyl groups; chemistry. They are constituents of fabrics, flavourings, plastics • describe the important methods and drugs. of preparation and reactions of these classes of compounds; In the previous Unit, you have studied organic • correlate physical properties and compounds with functional groups containing carbon- chemical reactions of aldehydes, oxygen single bond. In this Unit, we will study about the ketones and carboxylic acids, organic compounds containing carbon-oxygen double with their structures; bond (>C=O) called carbonyl group, which is one of the • explain the mechanism of a few most important functional groups in organic chemistry. selected reactions of aldehydes In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to a and ketones; carbon and hydrogen while in the ketones, it is bonded • understand various factors to two carbon atoms. The carbonyl compounds in which affecting the acidity of carboxylic carbon of carbonyl group is bonded to carbon or acids and their reactions; hydrogen and oxygen of hydroxyl moiety (-OH) are • describe the uses of aldehydes, known as carboxylic acids, while in compounds where ketones and carboxylic acids. carbon is attached to carbon or hydrogen and nitrogen of -NH2 moiety or to halogens are called amides and acyl halides respectively. Esters and anhydrides are derivatives of carboxylic acids. The general formulas of these classes of compounds are given below: Reprint 2025-26 Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants and animal kingdom. They play an important role in biochemical processes of life. They add fragrance and flavour to nature, for example, vanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet) and cinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances. They are used in many food products and pharmaceuticals to add flavours. Some of these families are manufactured for use as solvents (i.e., acetone) and for preparing materials like adhesives, paints, resins, perfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc. 8.18.18.18.18.1 NomenclatureNomenclatureNomenclatureNomenclatureNomenclature andandandandand StructureStructureStructureStructureStructure ofofofofof CarbonylCarbonylCarbonylCarbonylCarbonyl GroupGroupGroupGroupGroup 8.1.1 I. Aldehydes and ketones Nomenclature Aldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl compounds. There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones. (a) Common names Aldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names instead of IUPAC names. The common names of most aldehydes are derived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic acids [Section 8.6.1] by replacing the ending –ic of acid with aldehyde. At the same time, the names reflect the Latin or Greek term for the original source of the acid or aldehyde. The location of the substituent in the carbon chain is indicated by Greek letters a, b, g, d, etc. The a-carbon being the one directly linked to the aldehyde group, b- carbon the next, and so on. For example Chemistry 228 Reprint 2025-26 The common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group. The locations of substituents are indicated by Greek letters, a a¢, b b¢ and so on beginning with the carbon atoms next to the carbonyl group, indicated as aa¢. Some ketones have historical common names, the simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone. Alkyl phenyl ketones are usually named by adding the name of acyl group as prefix to the word phenone. For example (b) IUPAC names The IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones are derived from the names of the corresponding alkanes by replacing the ending –e with –al and –one respectively. In case of aldehydes the longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the carbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones the numbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group. The substituents are prefixed in alphabetical order along with numerals indicating their positions in the carbon chain. The same applies to cyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one. When the aldehyde group is attached to a ring, the suffix carbaldehyde is added after the full name of the cycloalkane. The numbering of the ring carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the aldehyde group. The name of the simplest aromatic aldehyde carrying the aldehyde group on a benzene ring is benzenecarbaldehyde. However, the common name benzaldehyde is also accepted by IUPAC. Other aromatic aldehydes are hence named as substituted benzaldehydes. 229 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 The common and IUPAC names of some aldehydes and ketones are given in Table 8.1. Table 8.1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones Structure Common name IUPAC name Aldehydes HCHO Formaldehyde Methanal CH3CHO Acetaldehyde Ethanal (CH3)2CHCHO Isobutyraldehyde 2-Methylpropanal g-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde 3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde CH3CH(OCH3)CHO a-Methoxypropionaldehyde 2-Methoxypropanal CH3CH2CH2CH2CHO Valeraldehyde Pentanal CH2=CHCHO Acrolein Prop-2-enal Phthaldehyde Benzene-1,2-dicarbaldehyde 3-Bromobenzenecarbaldehyde or m-Bromobenzaldehyde 3-Bromobenzaldehyde Ketones CH3COCH2CH2CH3 Methyl n-propyl ketone Pentan-2-one (CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2 Diisopropyl ketone 2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one a-Methylcyclohexanone 2-Methylcyclohexanone (CH3)2C=CHCOCH3 Mesityl oxide 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one Chemistry 230 Reprint 2025-26 8.1.2 Structure of The carbonyl carbon atom is sp2-hybridised and forms three sigma (s) the bonds. The fourth valence electron of carbon remains in its p-orbital Carbonyl and forms a p-bond with oxygen by overlap with p-orbital of an oxygen. Group In addition, the oxygen atom also has two non bonding electron pairs. Thus, the carbonyl carbon and the three atoms attached to it lie in the same plane and the p-electron cloud is above and below this plane. The bond angles are approximately 120° as expected of a trigonal coplanar structure (Figure 8.1). π Fig.8.1 Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group The carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher electronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon. Hence, the carbonyl carbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl oxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base) centre. Carbonyl compounds have substantial dipole moments and are polar than ethers. The high polarity of the carbonyl group is explained on the basis of resonance involving a neutral (A) and a dipolar (B) structures as shown. IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 8.1 Write the structures of the following compounds. (i) a-Methoxypropionaldehyde (ii) 3-Hydroxybutanal (iii) 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde (iv) 4-Oxopentanal (v) Di-sec. butyl ketone (vi) 4-Fluoroacetophenone 8.28.28.28.28.2 PreparationPreparationPreparationPreparationPreparation ofofofofof AldehydesAldehydesAldehydesAldehydesAldehydes Some important methods for the preparation of aldehydes andandandandand KetonesKetonesKetonesKetonesKetones and ketones are as follows: 8.2.1 Preparation 1. By oxidation of alcohols of Aldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary Aldehydes and secondary alcohols, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII). and 2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols Ketones This method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial application. In this method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy metal catalysts (Ag or Cu). Primary and secondary alcohols give aldehydes and ketones, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII). 3. From hydrocarbons (i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes followed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes, 231 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 ketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution pattern of the alkene (Unit 9, Class XI). (ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the presence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives acetaldehyde. All other alkynes give ketones in this reaction (Unit 9, Class XI). 8.2.2 Preparation 1. From acyl chloride (acid chloride) of Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium Aldehydes on barium sulphate. This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction. 2. From nitriles and esters Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give corresponding aldehyde. This reaction is called Stephen reaction. Alternatively, nitriles are selectively reduced by diisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines followed by hydrolysis to aldehydes: Similarly, esters are also reduced to aldehydes with DIBAL-H. 3. From hydrocarbons Aromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared from aromatic hydrocarbons by the following methods: (i) By oxidation of methylbenzene Strong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to benzoic acids. However, it is possible to stop the oxidation at the aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl group to an intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further. The following methods are used for this purpose. (a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises methyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde. Chemistry 232 Reprint 2025-26 This reaction is called Etard reaction. (b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic oxide in acetic anhydride. The benzylidene diacetate can be hydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous acid. (ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis Side chain chlorination of toluene gives benzal chloride, which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde. This is a commercial method of manufacture of benzaldehyde. (iii) By Gatterman – Koch reaction When benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehyde. This reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction. 8.2.3 Preparation 1. From acyl chlorides of Ketones Treatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the reaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones. 233 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 2. From nitriles Treating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields a ketone. 3. From benzene or substituted benzenes When benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the corresponding ketone. This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction. ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 8.18.18.18.18.1 Give names of the reagents to bring about the following transformations: (i) Hexan-1-ol to hexanal (ii) Cyclohexanol to cyclohexanone (iii) p-Fluorotoluene to (iv) Ethanenitrile to ethanal p-fluorobenzaldehyde (v) Allyl alcohol to propenal (vi) But-2-ene to ethanal SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution (i) C5H5NH+CrO3Cl-(PCC) (ii) Anhydrous CrO3 (iii) CrO3 in the presence (iv) (Diisobutyl)aluminium of acetic anhydride/ hydride (DIBAL-H) 1. CrO2Cl2 2. HOH (v) PCC (vi) O3/H2O-Zn dust IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionQuestionQuestionQuestionQuestion 8.2 Write the structures of products of the following reactions; (C6H 5CH 2) 2 Cd + 2 CH 3 COCl (i) (ii) CH3 2 Cl2 Hg2+, H2SO 4 1.CrO (iii) H 3C C C H (iv) 2.H3O+ NO2 Chemistry 234 Reprint 2025-26 8.38.38.38.38.3 PhysicalPhysicalPhysicalPhysicalPhysical The physical properties of aldehydes and ketones are described as follows. PropertiesPropertiesPropertiesPropertiesProperties Methanal is a gas at room temperature. Ethanal is a volatile liquid. Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature. The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than hydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses. It is due to weak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the dipole-dipole interactions. Also, their boiling points are lower than those of alcohols of similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The following compounds of molecular masses 58 and 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points. b.p.(K) Molecular Mass n-Butane 273 58 Methoxyethane 281 60 Propanal 322 58 Acetone 329 58 Propan-1-ol 370 60 The lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal, ethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all proportions, because they form hydrogen bond with water. However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly on increasing the length of alkyl chain. All aldehydes and ketones are fairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol, chloroform, etc. The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours. As the size of the molecule increases, the odour becomes less pungent and more fragrant. In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and ketones are used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents. Arrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 8.28.28.28.28.2 boiling points: CH3CH2CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, H5C2-O-C2H5, CH3CH2CH2CH3 The molecular masses of these compounds are in the range of 72 to SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution 74. Since only butan-1-ol molecules are associated due to extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding, therefore, the boiling point of butan-1-ol would be the highest. Butanal is more polar than ethoxyethane. Therefore, the intermolecular dipole-dipole attraction is stronger in the former. n-Pentane molecules have only weak van der Waals forces. Hence increasing order of boiling points of the given compounds is as follows: CH3CH2CH2CH3 < H5C2-O-C2H5 < CH3CH2CH2CHO < CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 235 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionQuestionQuestionQuestionQuestion 8.3 Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their boiling points. CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3 8.48.48.48.48.4 ChemicalChemicalChemicalChemicalChemical Since aldehydes and ketones both possess the carbonyl functional group, they undergo similar chemical reactions. ReactionsReactionsReactionsReactionsReactions 1. Nucleophilic addition reactions Contrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions. (i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions A nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar carbonyl group from a direction approximately perpendicular to the plane of sp 2 hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon (Fig. 8.2). The hybridisation of carbon changes from sp 2 to sp 3 in this process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is produced. This intermediate captures a proton from the reaction medium to give the electrically neutral product. The net result is addition of Nu – and H + across the carbon oxygen double bond as shown in Fig. 8.2. Fig.8.2: Nucleophilic attack on carbonyl carbon (ii) Reactivity Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic reasons. Sterically, the presence of two relatively large substituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to carbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such substituent. Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than ketones because two alkyl groups reduce the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon more effectively than in former. ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 8.38.38.38.38.3 Would you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in nucleophilic addition reactions than propanal? Explain your answer. SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution The carbon atom of the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde is less electrophilic than carbon atom of the carbonyl group present in propanal. The polarity of the carbonyl group is reduced in benzaldehyde due to resonance as shown below and hence it is less reactive than propanal. Chemistry 236 Reprint 2025-26 (iii) Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and nucleophilic addition-elimination reactions: (a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes and ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to yield cyanohydrins. This reaction occurs very slowly with pure HCN. Therefore, it is catalysed by a base and the generated cyanide ion (CN -) being a stronger nucleophile readily adds to carbonyl compounds to yield corresponding cyanohydrin. Cyanohydrins are useful synthetic intermediates. (b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium hydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and ketones to form the addition products. The position of the equilibrium lies largely to the right hand side for most aldehydes and to the left for most ketones due to steric reasons. The hydrogensulphite addition compound is water soluble and can be converted back to the original carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral acid or alkali. Therefore, these are useful for separation and purification of aldehydes. (c) Addition of Grignard reagents: (refer Unit 7, Class XII). (d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of monohydric alcohol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride to yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals, which further react with one more molecule of alcohol to give a gem-dialkoxy compound known as acetal as shown in the reaction. Ketones react with ethylene glycol under similar conditions to form cyclic products known as ethylene glycol ketals. Dry hydrogen chloride protonates the oxygen of the carbonyl compounds and therefore, increases the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon facilitating 237 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 the nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol. Acetals and ketals are hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield corresponding aldehydes and ketones respectively. (e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such as ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add to the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones. The reaction is reversible and catalysed by acid. The equilibrium favours the product formation due to rapid dehydration of the intermediate to form >C=N-Z. Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc. Table 8.2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z) Z Reagent name Carbonyl derivative Product name -H Ammonia Imine -R Amine Substituted imine (Schiff’s base) —OH Hydroxylamine Oxime —NH2 Hydrazine Hydrazone Phenylhydrazine Phenylhydrazone 2,4-Dinitrophenyl- 2,4 Dinitrophenyl- hydrazine hydrazone Semicarbazide Semicarbazone * 2,4-DNP-derivatives are yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes and ketones. 2. Reduction (i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to primary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as well as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII). (ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc- amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen Chemistry 238 Reprint 2025-26 reduction] or with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene glycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction). 3. Oxidation Aldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions. Aldehydes Bernhard Tollens are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common (1841-1918) was a oxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium Professor of Chemistry dichromate, etc. Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens’ reagent at the University of and Fehlings’ reagent also oxidise aldehydes. Gottingen, Germany. Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i.e., strong oxidising agents and at elevated temperatures. Their oxidation involves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic acids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone. The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish aldehydes from ketones: (i) Tollens’ test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared ammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens’ reagent), a bright silver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal. The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion. The reaction occurs in alkaline medium. (ii) Fehling’s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions, Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B. Fehling solution A is aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt). These two solutions are mixed in equal amounts before test. On heating an aldehyde with Fehling’s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained. Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion. Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test. 239 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 (iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group linked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones) are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is converted to haloform. This oxidation does not affect a carbon-carbon double bond, if present in the molecule. Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection of CH3CO group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group on oxidation. ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 8.48.48.48.48.4 An organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an orange-red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow precipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium hydroxide. It neither reduces Tollens’ or Fehlings’ reagent, nor does it decolourise bromine water or Baeyer’s reagent. On drastic oxidation with chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having molecular formula C7H6O2. Identify the compounds (A) and (B) and explain the reactions involved. SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution (A) forms 2,4-DNP derivative. Therefore, it is an aldehyde or a ketone. Since it does not reduce Tollens’ or Fehling reagent, (A) must be a ketone. (A) responds to iodoform test. Therefore, it should be a methyl ketone. The molecular formula of (A) indicates high degree of unsaturation, yet it does not decolourise bromine water or Baeyer’s reagent. This indicates the presence of unsaturation due to an aromatic ring. Compound (B), being an oxidation product of a ketone should be a carboxylic acid. The molecular formula of (B) indicates that it should be benzoic acid and compound (A) should, therefore, be a monosubstituted aromatic methyl ketone. The molecular formula of (A) indicates that it should be phenyl methyl ketone (acetophenone). Reactions are as follows: Chemistry 240 Reprint 2025-26 4. Reactions due to a-hydrogen Acidity of α-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes and ketones undergo a number of reactions due to the acidic nature of α-hydrogen. The acidity of α-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due to the strong electron withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group and resonance stabilisation of the conjugate base. (i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form β-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or β-hydroxy ketones (ketol), respectively. This is known as Aldol reaction. The name aldol is derived from the names of the two functional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in the products. The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds which are aldol condensation products and the reaction is called Aldol condensation. Though ketones give ketols (compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups), the general name aldol condensation still applies to the reactions of ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes. 241 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 (ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried out between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called cross aldol condensation. If both of them contain a-hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products. This is illustrated below by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal. Ketones can also be used as one component in the cross aldol reactions. 5. Other reactions (i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an a-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali. In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to alcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt. D D Chemistry 242 Reprint 2025-26 (ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones undergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group. IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 8.4 Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in nucleophilic addition reactions. (i) Ethanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone. (ii) Benzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone. Hint: Consider steric effect and electronic effect. 8.5 Predict the products of the following reactions: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 8.58.58.58.58.5 UsesUsesUsesUsesUses ofofofofof In chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents, AldehydesAldehydesAldehydesAldehydesAldehydes starting materials and reagents for the synthesis of other products. Formaldehyde is well known as formalin (40%) solution used to preserve andandandandand KetonesKetonesKetonesKetonesKetones biological specimens and to prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde resin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products. Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture of acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs. Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries. Acetone and ethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents. Many aldehydes and ketones, e.g., butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc. are well known for their odours and flavours. 243 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 Carboxylic Acids Carbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional group, –COOH are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group, consists of a carbonyl group attached to a hydroxyl group, hence its name carboxyl. Carboxylic acids may be aliphatic (RCOOH) or aromatic (ArCOOH) depending on the group, alkyl or aryl, attached to carboxylic carbon. Large number of carboxylic acids are found in nature. Some higher members of aliphatic carboxylic acids (C12 – C18) known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters of glycerol. Carboxylic acids serve as starting material for several other important organic compounds such as anhydrides, esters, acid chlorides, amides, etc. 8.68.68.68.68.6 NomenclatureNomenclatureNomenclatureNomenclatureNomenclature andandandandand StructureStructureStructureStructureStructure ofofofofof CarboxylCarboxylCarboxylCarboxylCarboxyl GroupGroupGroupGroupGroup 8.6.1 Since carboxylic acids are amongst the earliest organic compounds to Nomenclature be isolated from nature, a large number of them are known by their common names. The common names end with the suffix –ic acid and have been derived from Latin or Greek names of their natural sources. For example, formic acid (HCOOH) was first obtained from red ants (Latin: formica means ant), acetic acid (CH3COOH) from vinegar (Latin: acetum, means vinegar), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH) from rancid butter (Latin: butyrum, means butter). In the IUPAC system, aliphatic carboxylic acids are named by replacing the ending –e in the name of the corresponding alkane with – oic acid. In numbering the carbon chain, the carboxylic carbon is numbered one. For naming compounds containing more than one carboxyl group, the alkyl chain leaving carboxyl groups is numbered and the number of carboxyl groups is indicated by adding the multiplicative prefix, dicarboxylic acid, tricarboxylic acid, etc. to the name of parent alkyl chain. The position of –COOH groups are indicated by the arabic numeral before the multiplicative prefix. Some of the carboxylic acids along with their common and IUPAC names are listed in Table 8.3. Table 8.3 Names and Structures of Some Carboxylic Acids Structure Common name IUPAC name HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid CH3CH2CH2COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid (CH3)2CHCOOH Isobutyric acid 2-Methylpropanoic acid HOOC-COOH Oxalic acid Ethanedioic acid HOOC -CH2-COOH Malonic acid Propanedioic acid HOOC -(CH2)2-COOH Succinic acid Butanedioic acid HOOC -(CH2)3-COOH Glutaric acid Pentanedioic acid HOOC -(CH2)4-COOH Adipic acid Hexanedioic acid HOOC -CH2-CH(COOH)-CH2-COOH Tricarballylic acid Propane-1, 2, 3- or carballylic acid tricarboxylic acid Chemistry 244 Reprint 2025-26 Benzoic acid Benzenecarboxylic acid (Benzoic acid) Phenylacetic acid 2-Phenylethanoic acid Phthalic acid Benzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic acid 8.6.2 Structure In carboxylic acids, the bonds to the carboxyl carbon lie in one plane of Carboxyl and are separated by about 120°. The carboxylic carbon is less Group electrophilic than carbonyl carbon because of the possible resonance structure shown below: + IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionQuestionQuestionQuestionQuestion 8.6 Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds: (i) Ph CH2CH2COOH (ii) (CH3)2C=CHCOOH CH3 (iii) COOH (iv) 8.78.78.78.78.7 MethodsMethodsMethodsMethodsMethods ofofofofof Some important methods of preparation of carboxylic acids are as follows. PreparationPreparationPreparationPreparationPreparation 1. From primary alcohols and aldehydes ofofofofof CarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylic Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common AcidsAcidsAcidsAcidsAcids oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in neutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent). Jones reagent 245 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 Carboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of mild oxidising agents (Section 8.4). 2. From alkylbenzenes Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium permanganate. The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group irrespective of length of the side chain. Primary and secondary alkyl groups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected. Suitably substituted alkenes are also oxidised to carboxylic acids with these oxidising reagents. 3. From nitriles and amides Nitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of  H+ or OH as catalyst. Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the reaction at the amide stage. 4. From Grignard reagents Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of carboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids after acidification with mineral acid. As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared from alkyl halides (refer Unit 6, Class XII). The above methods Chemistry 246 Reprint 2025-26 (3 and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom more than that present in alkyl halides (ascending the series). 5. From acyl halides and anhydrides Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or more readily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on acidification provide corresponding carboxylic acids. Anhydrides on the other hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with water. 6. From esters Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give corresponding carboxylic acids. Write chemical reactions to affect the following transformations: ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 8.58.58.58.58.5 (i) Butan-1-ol to butanoic acid (ii) Benzyl alcohol to phenylethanoic acid (iii) 3-Nitrobromobenzene to 3-nitrobenzoic acid (iv) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid (v) Cyclohexene to hexane-1,6-dioic acid (vi) Butanal to butanoic acid. 247 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionQuestionQuestionQuestionQuestion 8.7 Show how each of the following compounds can be converted to benzoic acid. (i) Ethylbenzene (ii) Acetophenone (iii) Bromobenzene (iv) Phenylethene (Styrene) Chemistry 248 Reprint 2025-26 8.88.88.88.88.8 PhysicalPhysicalPhysicalPhysicalPhysical Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless PropertiesPropertiesPropertiesPropertiesProperties liquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours. The higher acids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due to their low volatility. Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of comparable molecular masses. This is due to more extensive association of carboxylic acid molecules through intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The hydrogen bonds are not broken completely even in the vapour phase. In fact, In vapour state or in most carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase aprotic solvent or in the aprotic solvents. Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four carbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with water. The solubility decreases with increasing number of carbon atoms. Higher carboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to the increased hydrophobic interaction of hydrocarbon part. Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid is nearly insoluble in cold water. Carboxylic acids are Hydrogen bonding of also soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene, RCOOH with H2O ether, alcohol, chloroform, etc. 8.98.98.98.98.9 ChemicalChemicalChemicalChemicalChemical ReactionsReactionsReactionsReactionsReactions The reaction of carboxylic acids are classified as follows: 8.9.1 Reactions Acidity Involving Reactions with metals and alkalies Cleavage of The carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen with electropositive O–H Bond metals and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols. However, unlike phenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide. This reaction is used to detect the presence of carboxyl group in an organic compound. Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised carboxylate anions and hydronium ion. 249 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 For the above reaction: where Keq, is equilibrium constant and Ka is the acid dissociation constant. For convenience, the strength of an acid is generally indicated by its pKa value rather than its Ka value. pKa = – log Ka The pKa of hydrochloric acid is –7.0, where as pKa of trifluoroacetic acid (the strongest carboxylic acid), benzoic acid and acetic acid are 0.23, 4.19 and 4.76, respectively. Smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid ( the better it is as a proton donor). Strong acids have pKa values < 1, the acids with pKa values between 1 and 5 are considered to be moderately strong acids, weak acids have pKa values between 5 and 15, and extremely weak acids have pKa values >15. Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger acids than alcohols and many simple phenols (pKa is ~16 for ethanol and 10 for phenol). In fact, carboxylic acids are amongst the most acidic organic compounds you have studied so far. You already know why phenols are more acidic than alcohols. The higher acidity of carboxylic acids as compared to phenols can be understood similarly. The conjugate base of carboxylic acid, a carboxylate ion, is stabilised by two equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge is at the more electronegative oxygen atom. The conjugate base of phenol, a phenoxide ion, has non-equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge is at the less electronegative carbon atom. Therefore, resonance in phenoxide ion is not as important as it is in carboxylate ion. Further, the negative charge is delocalised over two electronegative oxygen atoms in carboxylate ion whereas it is less effectively delocalised over one oxygen atom and less electronegative carbon atoms in phenoxide ion (Unit 7, Class XII). Thus, the carboxylate ion is more stabilised than phenoxide ion, so carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols. Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids: Substituents may affect the stability of the conjugate base and thus, also affect the acidity of the carboxylic acids. Electron withdrawing groups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the conjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by inductive and/or resonance effects. Conversely, electron donating groups decrease the acidity by destabilising the conjugate base. Electron withdrawing group (EWG) Electron donating group (EDG) stabilises the carboxylate anion destabilises the carboxylate and strengthens the acid anion and weakens the acid Chemistry 250 Reprint 2025-26 The effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is Ph < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3 Thus, the following acids are arranged in order of increasing acidity (based on pKa values): CF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC-CH2COOH > FCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH > ClCH2CH2COOH > (continue) C6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH (continue ) Direct attachment of groups such as phenyl or vinyl to the carboxylic acid, increases the acidity of corresponding carboxylic acid, contrary to the decrease expected due to resonance effect shown below: This is because of greater electronegativity of sp2 hybridised carbon to which carboxyl carbon is attached. The presence of electron withdrawing group on the phenyl of aromatic carboxylic acid increases their acidity while electron donating groups decrease their acidity. COOH COOH COOH NO2 OCH3 4-Methoxy Benzoic acid 4-Nitrobenzoic acid benzoic acid (p Ka = 4.46) (p Ka = 4.19) (p Ka = 3.41) 8.9.2 Reactions 1. Formation of anhydride Involving Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with Cleavage of P2O5 give corresponding anhydride. C–OH Bond 2. Esterification Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence of a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst. 251 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 Mechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids: The esterification of carboxylic acids with alcohols is a kind of nucleophilic acyl substitution. Protonation of the carbonyl oxygen activates the carbonyl group towards nucleophilic addition of the alcohol. Proton transfer in the tetrahedral intermediate converts the hydroxyl group into – +OH2 group, which, being a better leaving group, is eliminated as neutral water molecule. The protonated ester so formed finally loses a proton to give the ester. 3. Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2 The hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols and is easily replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or SOCl2. Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two products are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the purification of the products easier. 4. Reaction with ammonia Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which on further heating at high temperature give amides. For example: Chemistry 252 Reprint 2025-26 8.9.3 Reactions 1. Reduction Involving Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium –COOH aluminium hydride or better with diborane. Diborane does not easily Group reduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc. Sodium borohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group. 2. Decarboxylation Carboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their sodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of 3 : 1). The reaction is known as decarboxylation. Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation on electrolysis of their aqueous solutions and form hydrocarbons having twice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid. The reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis (Unit 9, Class XI). 8.9.4 Substitution 1. Halogenation Reactions in the Carboxylic acids having an α-hydrogen are halogenated at the Hydrocarbon Part α-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give α-halocarboxylic acids. The reaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction. 253 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids Reprint 2025-26 2. Ring substitution Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions in which the carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group. They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst aluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group). IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionQuestionQuestionQuestionQuestion 8.8 Which acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger? (i) CH3CO2H or CH2FCO2H (ii) CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H (iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H (iv) 8.108.108.108.108.10 UsesUsesUsesUsesUses ofofofofof Methanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating CarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylicCarboxylic industries. Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry. Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6. Esters of benzoic AcidsAcidsAcidsAcidsAcids acid are used in perfumery. Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative. Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents. SummarySummarySummarySummarySummary Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of organic compounds containing carbonyl group. These are highly polar molecules. Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and weakly polar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses. The lower members are more soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water. The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain of carbon atoms, are insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents. Aldehydes are prepared by dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and controlled or selective reduction of acyl halides. Aromatic aldehydes may also be prepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the presence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and hydrochloric acid in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous chloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride. Ketones are prepared by oxidation of secondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes. Ketones are also prepared by reaction of acyl chloride with dialkylcadmium. A good method for the preparation of aromatic ketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides or anhydrides. Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes. Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl group with a number of nucleophiles such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols), Chemistry 254 Reprint 2025-26 ammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents. The a-hydrogens in aldehydes and ketones are acidic. Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen, undergo Aldol condensation in the presence of a base to give a-hydroxyaldehydes (aldol) and a-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively. Aldehydes having no a-hydrogen undergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali. Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation. The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to a methylene group by Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction. Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens’ reagent and Fehling’s reagent. These oxidation reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from ketones. Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols, aldehydes and alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with carbon dioxide. Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation of alkylbenzenes. Carboxylic acids are considerably more acidic than alcohols and most of simple phenols. Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4, or better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo a-halogenation with Cl2 and Br2 in the presence of red phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction). Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and benzoic acid are highly useful compounds in industry. Exercises

8.6 Predict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with following reagents. (i) PhMgBr and then H3O + (ii) Tollens’ reagent (iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid (iv) Excess ethanol and acid (v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid 8.7 Which of the following compounds would undergo aldol condensation, which the Cannizzaro reaction and which neither? Write the structures of the expected products of aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction. (i) Methanal (ii) 2-Methylpentanal (iii) Benzaldehyde (iv) Benzophenone (v) Cyclohexanone (vi) 1-Phenylpropanone (vii) Phenylacetaldehyde (viii) Butan-1-ol (ix) 2,2-Dimethylbutanal 8.8 How will you convert ethanal into the following compounds? (i) Butane-1,3-diol (ii) But-2-enal (iii) But-2-enoic acid 8.9 Write structural formulas and names of four possible aldol condensation products from propanal and butanal. In each case, indicate which aldehyde acts as nucleophile and which as electrophile. 8.10 An organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative, reduces Tollens’ reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction. On vigorous oxidation, it gives 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid. Identify the compound. 8.11 An organic compound (A) (molecular formula C8H16O2) was hydrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid to give a carboxylic acid (B) and an alcohol (C). Oxidation of (C) with chromic acid produced (B). (C) on dehydration gives but-1-ene. Write equations for the reactions involved. 8.12 Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their property as indicated: (i) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone (reactivity towards HCN) (ii) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH, CH3CH2CH2COOH (acid strength) (iii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid, 4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength) 8.13 Give simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds. (i) Propanal and Propanone (ii) Acetophenone and Benzophenone (iii) Phenol and Benzoic acid (iv) Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate (v) Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one (vi) Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone (vii) Ethanal and Propanal 8.14 How will you prepare the following compounds from benzene? You may use any inorganic reagent and any organic reagent having not more than one carbon atom (i) Methyl benzoate (ii) m-Nitrobenzoic acid (iii) p-Nitrobenzoic acid (iv) Phenylacetic acid (v) p-Nitrobenzaldehyde. 8.15 How will you bring about the following conversions in not more than two steps? (i) Propanone to Propene (ii) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde (iii) Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal (iv) Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone (v) Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone (vi) Bromobenzene to 1-Phenylethanol (vii) Benzaldehyde to 3-Phenylpropan-1-ol (viii) Benazaldehyde to a-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid (ix) Benzoic acid to m- Nitrobenzyl alcohol 8.16 Describe the following: (i) Acetylation (ii) Cannizzaro reaction (iii) Cross aldol condensation (iv) Decarboxylation Chemistry 256 Reprint 2025-26