3.10 In a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured for different initial concentrations of A and B as given below: A/ mol L–1 0.20 0.20 0.40 B/ mol L–1 0.30 0.10 0.05 r0/mol L–1s–1 5.07 × 10–5 5.07 × 10–5 1.43 × 10–4 What is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B? 3.11 The following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction: 2A + B ® C + D Experiment [A]/mol L–1 [B]/mol L–1 Initial rate of formation of D/mol L–1 min–1 I 0.1 0.1 6.0 × 10–3 II 0.3 0.2 7.2 × 10–2 III 0.3 0.4 2.88 × 10–1 IV 0.4 0.1 2.40 × 10–2 Determine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction. 3.12 The reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order with respect to B. Fill in the blanks in the following table: Experiment [A]/ mol L–1 [B]/ mol L–1 Initial rate/ mol L–1 min–1 I 0.1 0.1 2.0 × 10–2 II – 0.2 4.0 × 10–2 III 0.4 0.4 – IV – 0.2 2.0 × 10–2 3.13 Calculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given below: (i) 200 s–1 (ii) 2 min–1 (iii) 4 years–1 3.14 The half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years. An archaeological artifact containing wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree. Estimate the age of the sample. 3.15 The experimental data for decomposition of N2O5 [2N2O5 ® 4NO2 + O2] in gas phase at 318K are given below: t/s 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 102 × [N2O5]/ 1.63 1.36 1.14 0.93 0.78 0.64 0.53 0.43 0.35 mol L–1 (i) Plot [N2O5] against t. (ii) Find the half-life period for the reaction. (iii) Draw a graph between log[N2O5] and t. (iv) What is the rate law ? Chemistry 86 Reprint 2025-26 (v) Calculate the rate constant. (vi) Calculate the half-life period from k and compare it with (ii).

9.20 (a) (i) Let a parallel beam be the incident from the left on the convex lens first. f1 = 30 cm and u1 = – , give v1 = + 30 cm. This image becomes a virtual object for the second lens. f2 = –20 cm, u 2 = + (30 – 8) cm = + 22 cm which gives, v2 = – 220 cm. The parallel incident beam appears to diverge from a point 216 cm from the centre of the two-lens system. (ii) Let the parallel beam be incident from the left on the concave lens first: f1 = – 20 cm, u1 = – ¥, give v1 = – 20 cm. This image becomes a real object for the second lens: f2 = + 30 cm, u2 = – (20 + 8) cm = – 28 cm which gives, v2 = – 420 cm. The parallel incident beam appears to diverge from a point 416 cm on the left of the centre of the two-lens system. Clearly, the answer depends on which side of the lens system the parallel beam is incident. Further we do not have a simple lens equation true for all u (and v) in terms of a definite constant of the system (the constant being determined by f1 and f2, and the separation between the lenses). The notion of effective focal length, therefore, does not seem to be meaningful for this system. (b) u1 = – 40 cm, f1 = 30 cm, gives v1= 120 cm. Magnitude of magnification due to the first (convex) lens is 3. u 2 = + (120 – 8) cm = +112 cm (object virtual); 112 × 20 f2 = – 20 cm which gives v2 = − cm 92 Magnitude of magnification due to the second (concave) 347 Reprint 2025-26 Physics lens = 20/92. Net magnitude of magnification = 0.652 Size of the image = 0.98 cm 9.21 If the refracted ray in the prism is incident on the second face at the critical angle ic, the angle of refraction r at the first face is (60°–ic). Now, ic = sin–1 (1/1.524) ~ 41° Therefore, r = 19° sin i = 0.4962; i ~ 30° 1 1 1 9.22 (a) + = v 9 10 i.e., v = – 90 cm, Magnitude of magnification = 90/9 = 10. Each square in the virtual image has an area 10 × 10 × 1 mm2 = 100 mm2 = 1 cm2 (b) Magnifying power = 25/9 = 2.8 (c) No, magnification of an image by a lens and angular magnification (or magnifying power) of an optical instrument are two separate things. The latter is the ratio of the angular size of the object (which is equal to the angular size of the image even if the image is magnified) to the angular size of the object if placed at the near point (25 cm). Thus, magnification magnitude is |(v/u)| and magnifying power is (25/ |u|). Only when the image is located at the near point |v| = 25 cm, are the two quantities equal. 9.23 (a) Maximum magnifying power is obtained when the image is at the near point (25 cm) u = – 7.14 cm. (b) Magnitude of magnification = (25/ |u|) = 3.5. (c) Magnifying power = 3.5 Yes, the magnifying power (when the image is produced at 25 cm) is equal to the magnitude of magnification. 9.24 Magnification = ( 6.25 / 1) = 2.5 v = +2.5u 1 1 1    2.5u u 10 i.e.,u = – 6 cm |v| = 15 cm The virtual image is closer than the normal near point (25 cm) and cannot be seen by the eye distinctly. 9.25 (a) Even though the absolute image size is bigger than the object size, the angular size of the image is equal to the angular size of the object. The magnifier helps in the following way: without it object would be placed no closer than 25 cm; with it the object can be placed much closer. The closer object has larger angular size than the same object at 25 cm. It is in this sense that angular magnification is achieved. (b) Yes, it decreases a little because the angle subtended at the eye is then slightly less than the angle subtended at the lens. The Reprint 2025-26 Answers effect is negligible if the image is at a very large distance away. [Note: When the eye is separated from the lens, the angles subtended at the eye by the first object and its image are not equal.] (c) First, grinding lens of very small focal length is not easy. More important, if you decrease focal length, aberrations (both spherical and chromatic) become more pronounced. So, in practice, you cannot get a magnifying power of more than 3 or so with a simple convex lens. However, using an aberration corrected lens system, one can increase this limit by a factor of 10 or so. (d) Angular magnification of eye-piece is [(25/fe) + 1] ( fe in cm) which increases if fe is smaller. Further, magnification of the objective v O 1 = is given by | u O | (| u O |/ f O ) − 1 which is large when |u O | is slightly greater than fO. The micro- scope is used for viewing very close object. So |u O | is small, and so is fO. (e) The image of the objective in the eye-piece is known as ‘eye-ring’. All the rays from the object refracted by objective go through the eye-ring. Therefore, it is an ideal position for our eyes for viewing. If we place our eyes too close to the eye-piece, we shall not collect much of the light and also reduce our field of view. If we position our eyes on the eye-ring and the area of the pupil of our eye is greater or equal to the area of the eye-ring, our eyes will collect all the light refracted by the objective. The precise location of the eye-ring naturally depends on the separation between the objective and the eye-piece. When you view through a microscope by placing your eyes on one end,the ideal distance between the eyes and eye-piece is usually built-in the design of the instrument.

11.3 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (a) Imagine two systems A and B, separated by an adiabatic wall, while each is in contact with a third system C, via a conducting wall [Fig. 11.2(a)]. The states of the systems (i.e., their macroscopic variables) will change until both A and B come to thermal equilibrium with C. After this is achieved, suppose that the adiabatic wall between A and B is replaced by a conducting wall and C is insulated from A and B by an adiabatic wall [Fig.11.2(b)]. It is found that the states of A and B change no (b) further i.e. they are found to be in thermal Fig. 11.2 (a) Systems A and B are separated by an equilibrium with each other. This observation adiabatic wall, while each is in contact forms the basis of the Zeroth Law of with a third system C via a conducting Thermodynamics, which states that ‘two wall. (b) The adiabatic wall between A systems in thermal equilibrium with a third and B is replaced by a conducting wall, system separately are in thermal equilibrium while C is insulated from A and B by an adiabatic wall.with each other’. R.H. Fowler formulated this * Both the variables need not change. It depends on the constraints. For instance, if the gases are in containers of fixed volume, only the pressures of the gases would change to achieve thermal equilibrium. Reprint 2025-26 THERMODYNAMICS 229