1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY many big environmental problems continue to be matters of grave concern to the chemists.Chemistry plays a central role in science and One such problem is the management of theis often intertwined with other branches of Green House gases, like methane, carbonscience. dioxide, etc. Understanding of biochemical Principles of chemistry are applicable processes, use of enzymes for large-scale in diverse areas, such as weather patterns, production of chemicals and synthesis of new functioning of brain and operation of a exotic material are some of the intellectual computer, production in chemical industries, challenges for the future generation of manufacturing fertilisers, alkalis, acids, salts, chemists. A developing country, like India, dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps, detergents, needs talented and creative chemists for metals, alloys, etc., including new material. accepting such challenges. To be a good chemist and to accept such challanges, one Chemistry contributes in a big way to the needs to understand the basic concepts ofnational economy. It also plays an important chemistry, which begin with the concept ofrole in meeting human needs for food, matter. Let us start with the nature of matter.healthcare products and other material aimed at improving the quality of life. This 1.2 Nature of Matter is exemplified by the large-scale production You are already familiar with the term matter of a variety of fertilisers, improved variety from your earlier classes. Anything which has of pesticides and insecticides. Chemistry mass and occupies space is called matter. provides methods for the isolation of life- Everything around us, for example, book, pen, saving drugs from natural sources and pencil, water, air, all living beings, etc., are makes possible synthesis of such drugs. composed of matter. You know that they have Some of these drugs are cisplatin and mass and they occupy space. Let us recall the taxol, which are effective in cancer therapy. characteristics of the states of matter, which The drug AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for you learnt in your previous classes. helping AIDS patients. Chemistry contributes to a large extent in 1.2.1 States of Matter the development and growth of a nation. With You are aware that matter can exist in three a better understanding of chemical principles physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas. it has now become possible to design and The constituent particles of matter in these synthesise new material having specific three states can be represented as shown in magnetic, electric and optical properties. This Fig. 1.1. has lead to the production of superconducting Particles are held very close to each other ceramics, conducting polymers, optical fibres, in solids in an orderly fashion and there is not etc. Chemistry has helped in establishing much freedom of movement. In liquids, the industries which manufacture utility goods, particles are close to each other but they can like acids, alkalies, dyes, polymesr metals, move around. However, in gases, the particles etc. These industries contribute in a big way are far apart as compared to those present in to the economy of a nation and generate solid or liquid states and their movement is employment. easy and fast. Because of such arrangement of particles, different states of matter exhibit In recent years, chemistry has helped in the following characteristics:dealing with some of the pressing aspects (i) Solids have definite volume and definiteof environmental degradation with a fair shape.degree of success. Safer alternatives to environmentally hazardous refrigerants, (ii) Liquids have definite volume but do like CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), responsible not have definite shape. They take the for ozone depletion in the stratosphere, have shape of the container in which they are been successfully synthesised. However, placed. Reprint 2025-26 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 5 Fig. 1.1 Arrangement of particles in solid, liquid Fig. 1.2 Classification of matter and gaseous state (iii) Gases have neither definite volume nor completely mix with each other. This means definite shape. They completely occupy particles of components of the mixture are the space in the container in which they uniformly distributed throughout the bulk of are placed. the mixture and its composition is uniform throughout. Sugar solution and air are the These three states of matter are examples of homogeneous mixtures. Ininterconvertible by changing the conditions contrast to this, in a heterogeneous mixture,of temperature and pressure. the composition is not uniform throughout Solid liquid Gas and sometimes different components are On heating, a solid usually changes to visible. For example, mixtures of salt and a liquid, and the liquid on further heating sugar, grains and pulses along with some changes to gas (or vapour). In the reverse dirt (often stone pieces), are heterogeneous process, a gas on cooling liquifies to the liquid mixtures. You can think of many more and the liquid on further cooling freezes to examples of mixtures which you come across the solid. in the daily life. It is worthwhile to mention here that the components of a mixture can 1.2.2. Classification of Matter be separated by using physical methods, In Class IX (Chapter 2), you have learnt that such as simple hand-picking, filtration, at the macroscopic or bulk level, matter can crystallisation, distillation, etc. be classified as mixture or pure substance. Pure substances have characteristics These can be further sub-divided as shown different from mixtures. Constituent particles in Fig. 1.2. of pure substances have fixed composition. When all constituent particles of a Copper, silver, gold, water and glucose are substance are same in chemical nature, it some examples of pure substances. Glucose is said to be a pure substance. A mixture contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in contains many types of particles. a fixed ratio and its particles are of same A mixture contains particles of two or composition. Hence, like all other pure substances, glucose has a fixed composition.more pure substances which may be present Also, its constituents—carbon, hydrogenin it in any ratio. Hence, their composition is and oxygen—cannot be separated by simplevariable. Pure substances forming mixture physical methods.are called its components. Many of the substances present around you are mixtures. Pure substances can further be classified For example, sugar solution in water, air, into elements and compounds. Particles tea, etc., are all mixtures. A mixture may of an element consist of only one type of be homogeneous or heterogeneous. In a atoms. These particles may exist as atoms or homogeneous mixture, the components molecules. You may be familiar with atoms Reprint 2025-26 6 chemistry and molecules from the previous classes; however, you will be studying about them in detail in Unit 2. Sodium, copper, silver, hydrogen, oxygen, etc., are some examples of elements. Their all atoms are of one type. Water molecule Carbon dioxideHowever, the atoms of different elements are different in nature. Some elements, (H2O) molecule (CO2) such as sodium or copper, contain atoms Fig. 1.4 A depiction of molecules of water and as their constituent particles, whereas, in carbon dioxide some others, the constituent particles are molecules which are formed by two or more elements are present in a compound in a fixed atoms. For example, hydrogen, nitrogen and and definite ratio and this ratio is characteristic oxygen gases consist of molecules, in which of a particular compound. Also, the properties two atoms combine to give their respective of a compound are different from those of its molecules. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. constituent elements. For example, hydrogen and oxygen are gases, whereas, the compound formed by their combination i.e., water is a liquid. It is interesting to note that hydrogen burns with a pop sound and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, but water is used as a fire extinguisher. 1.3 Properties of Matter and their Measurement 1.3.1 Physical and chemical properties Every substance has unique or characteristic properties. These properties can be classified into two categories — physical properties, such as colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density, etc., and chemical properties, like composition, combustibility, ractivity with Fig. 1.3 A representation of atoms and molecules acids and bases, etc. When two or more atoms of different Physical properties can be measured elements combine together in a definite ratio, or observed without changing the identity the molecule of a compound is obtained. or the composition of the substance. The measurement or observation of chemicalMoreover, the constituents of a compound properties requires a chemical change tocannot be separated into simpler substances occur. Measurement of physical propertiesby physical methods. They can be separated does not require occurance of a chemicalby chemical methods. Examples of some change. The examples of chemical propertiescompounds are water, ammonia, carbon are characteristic reactions of differentdioxide, sugar, etc. The molecules of water substances; these include acidity or basicity,and carbon dioxide are represented in Fig. 1.4. combustibility, etc. Chemists describe, Note that a water molecule comprises interpret and predict the behaviour of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. substances on the basis of knowledge of their Similarly, a molecule of carbon dioxide physical and chemical properties, which are contains two oxygen atoms combined with determined by careful measurement and one carbon atom. Thus, the atoms of different experimentation. In the following section, we Reprint 2025-26 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 7 will learn about the measurement of physical properties. Maintaining the National Standards of Measurement 1.3.2 Measurement of physical properties The system of units, including unit Quantitative measurement of properties is definitions, keeps on changing with time. reaquired for scientific investigation. Many Whenever the accuracy of measurement of a properties of matter, such as length, area, particular unit was enhanced substantially volume, etc., are quantitative in nature. Any by adopting new principles, member nations quantitative observation or measurement is of metre treaty (signed in 1875), agreed represented by a number followed by units to change the formal definition of that in which it is measured. For example, length unit. Each modern industrialised country, including India, has a National Metrologyof a room can be represented as 6 m; here, Institute (NMI), which maintains standards of6 is the number and m denotes metre, the measurements. This responsibility has been unit in which the length is measured. given to the National Physical Laboratory Earlier, two different systems of (NPL), New Delhi. This laboratory establishes measurement, i.e., the English System experiments to realise the base units and derived units of measurement and maintainsand the Metric System were being used National Standards of Measurement. Thesein different parts of the world. The metric standards are periodically inter-compared system, which originated in France in late with standards maintained at other National eighteenth century, was more convenient as Metrology Institutes in the world, as well it was based on the decimal system. Late, as those, established at the International need of a common standard system was felt Bureau of Standards in Paris. by the scientific community. Such a system was established in 1960 and is discussed in governmental treaty organisation created by a detail below. diplomatic treaty known as Metre Convention, 1.3.3 The International System of Units (SI) which was signed in Paris in 1875. The International System of Units (in The SI system has seven base units French Le Systeme International d’Unités and they are listed in Table 1.1. These units — abbreviated as SI) was established by pertain to the seven fundamental scientific the 11th General Conference on Weights and quantities. The other physical quantities, Measures (CGPM from Conference Generale such as speed, volume, density, etc., can be des Poids et Measures). The CGPM is an inter- derived from these quantities. Table 1.1 Base Physical Quantities and their Units Base Physical Symbol for Name of Symbol for Quantity Quantity SI Unit SI Unit Length l metre m Mass m kilogram kg Time t second s Electric current I ampere A Thermodynamic T kelvin K temperature Amount of n mole mol substance Iv candela cd Luminous intensity Reprint 2025-26 8 chemistry The definitions of the SI base units are These prefixes are listed in Table 1.3. given in Table 1.2. Let us now quickly go through some of The SI system allows the use of prefixes to the quantities which you will be often using indicate the multiples or submultiples of a unit. in this book. Table 1.2 Definitions of SI Base Units The metre, symbol m is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum Unit of length metre c to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit ms–1, where the second is defined in terms of the caesium frequencyV Cs. The kilogram, symbol kg. is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the planck constant h to Unit of mass kilogram be 6.62607015×10–34 when expressed in the unit Js, which is equal to kgm2s–1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and V Cs. The second symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency V Cs, Unit of time second the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1. The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary Unit of electric ampere charge e to be 1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit current C, which is equal to As, where the second is defined in terms of V Cs. The kelvin, symbol k, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value Unit of of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380649×10–23 when thermodynamic kelvin expressed in the unit JK–1, which is equal to kgm2s–2k–1 where temperature the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and V Cs. The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol–1 and Unit of amount mole is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance, of substance symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group of particles. The candela, symbol cd is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation Unit of luminous Candela of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed Intensity in the unit lm·W–1, which is equal to cd·sr·W–1, or cd sr kg–1 m–2s3, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and V Cs. Reprint 2025-26 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 9 Table 1.3 Prefixes used in the SI System Multiple Prefix Symbol 10–24 yocto y 10–21 zepto z 10–18 atto a 10–15 femto f 10–12 pico p 10–9 nano n 10–6 micro µ 10–3 milli m 10–2 centi c 10–1 deci d 10 deca da 102 hecto h 103 kilo k 106 mega M Fig. 1.5 Analytical balance 109 giga G 1012 tera T SI system, volume has units of m3. But again, 1015 peta P in chemistry laboratories, smaller volumes 1018 exa E are used. Hence, volume is often denoted in 1021 zeta Z cm3 or dm3 units. 1024 yotta Y A common unit, litre (L) which is not an SI unit, is used for measurement of volume 1.3.4 Mass and Weight of liquids. Mass of a substance is the amount of matter 1 L = 1000 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3present in it, while weight is the force Fig. 1.6 helps to visualise these relations. exerted by gravity on an object. The mass of a substance is constant, whereas, its weight may vary from one place to another due to change in gravity. You should be careful in using these terms. The mass of a substance can be determined accurately in the laboratory by using an analytical balance (Fig. 1.5). The SI unit of mass as given in Table 1.1 is kilogram. However, its fraction named as gram (1 kg = 1000 g), is used in laboratories due to the smaller amounts of chemicals used in chemical reactions. 1.3.5 Volume Volume is the amont of space occupied by a Fig. 1.6 Different units used to express volumesubstance. It has the units of (length)3. So in Reprint 2025-26 10 chemistry In the laboratory, the volume of liquids fahrenheit) and K (kelvin). Here, K is the or solutions can be measured by graduated SI unit. The thermometers based on these cylinder, burette, pipette, etc. A volumetric scales are shown in Fig. 1.8. Generally, flask is used to prepare a known volume of a the thermometer with celsius scale are solution. These measuring devices are shown calibrated from 0° to 100°, where these two in Fig. 1.7. temperatures are the freezing point and the boiling point of water, respectively. The fahrenheit scale is represented between 32° to 212°. The temperatures on two scales are related to each other by the following relationship: 9  F   C   32 5 The kelvin scale is related to celsius scale as follows: K = °C + 273.15 It is interesting to note that temperature below 0 °C (i.e., negative values) are possible in Celsius scale but in Kelvin scale, negative Fig. 1.7 Some volume measuring devices temperature is not possible. 1.3.6 Density The two properties — mass and volume discussed above are related as follows: Mass Density = Volume Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume. So, SI units of density can be obtained as follows: SI unit of density = kg = or kg m–3 m3 This unit is quite large and a chemist often expresses density in g cm–3, where mass is expressed in gram and volume is expressed Fig. 1.8 Thermometers using differentin cm3. Density of a substance tells us about temperature scaleshow closely its particles are packed. If density is more, it means particles are more closely 1.4 U Many a time in the study of chemistry, one 1.3.7 Temperature has to deal with experimental data as well as There are three common scales to measure theoretical calculations. There are meaningful temperature — °C (degree celsius), °F (degree ways to handle the numbers conveniently and Reprint 2025-26 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 11 present the data realistically with certainty to the extent possible. These ideas are discussed Reference Standard below in detail. After defining a unit of measurement such as the kilogram or the metre, scientists agreed 1.4.1 Scientific Notation on reference standards that make it possible As chemistry is the study of atoms and to calibrate all measuring devices. For getting molecules, which have extremely low masses reliable measurements, all devices such as and are present in extremely large numbers, metre sticks and analytical balances have a chemist has to deal with numbers as large been calibrated by their manufacturers to give correct readings. However, each of as 602, 200,000,000,000,000,000,000 for the these devices is standardised or calibrated molecules of 2 g of hydrogen gas or as small as against some reference. The mass standard 0.00000000000000000000000166 g mass of is the kilogram since 1889. It has been a H atom. Similarly, other constants such as defined as the mass of platinum-iridium Planck’s constant, speed of light, charges on (Pt-Ir) cylinder that is stored in an airtight particles, etc., involve numbers of the above jar at International Bureau of Weights magnitude. and Measures in Sevres, France. Pt-Ir was chosen for this standard because it is highly It may look funny for a moment to resistant to chemical attack and its mass write or count numbers involving so many will not change for an extremely long time. zeros but it offers a real challenge to do Scientists are in search of a new simple mathematical operations of addition, standard for mass. This is being attempted subtraction, multiplication or division with through accurate determination of Avogadro such numbers. You can write any two constant. Work on this new standard focuses numbers of the above type and try any one on ways to measure accurately the number of the operations you like to accept as a of atoms in a well-defined mass of sample. challenge, and then, you will really appreciate One such method, which uses X-rays to the difficulty in handling such numbers. determine the atomic density of a crystal of ultrapure silicon, has an accuracy of about This problem is solved by using scientific 1 part in 106 but has not yet been adopted to notation for such numbers, i.e., exponential serve as a standard. There are other methods notation in which any number can be but none of them are presently adequate to represented in the form N × 10n, where n is an replace the Pt-Ir cylinder. No doubt, changes exponent having positive or negative values are expected within this decade. and N is a number (called digit term) which The metre was originally defined as the varies between 1.000... and 9.999.... length between two marks on a Pt-Ir bar kept at a temperature of 0°C (273.15 K). In Thus, we can write 232.508 as 1960 the length of the metre was defined as 2.32508 × 102 in scientific notation. Note that 1.65076373 × 106 times the wavelength of while writing it, the decimal had to be moved light emitted by a krypton laser. Although to the left by two places and same is the this was a cumbersome number, it preserved exponent (2) of 10 in the scientific notation. the length of the metre at its agreed value. Similarly, 0.00016 can be written as The metre was redefined in 1983 by CGPM 1.6 × 10–4. Here, the decimal has to be as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 moved four places to the right and (–4) is the 458 of a second. Similar to the length and exponent in the scientific notation. the mass, there are reference standards for While performing mathematical operations other physical quantities. on numbers expressed in scientific notations, the following points are to be kept in mind. Reprint 2025-26 12 chemistry Multiplication and Division mass obtained by an analytical balance is These two operations follow the same rules slightly higher than the mass obtained by which are there for exponential numbers, i.e. using a platform balance. Therefore, digit 4 placed after decimal in the measurement by 10 5 .6  10 6 .9  10  5 8 5  8 platform balance is u 13 The u = 38.64  1013 mentioning the number of significant figures. Significant figures are meaningful = 3.864  1014 digits which are known with certainty plus 10 2  6   2 .5  10 6 9 .8  10 2     =  9 .8  2 .5    one which is estimated or u 2 6 u = 24.50  10 8 write a result as 11.2 mL, we say the 11 is = 2.450  10 7 certain and 2 is u 3 would be +1 in the last digit. Unless otherwise 2 .7  10 3 4 7 10 =0.4909  1 0 stated, an u =4.909  10 8 There are certain rules for determining the number of significant figures. These are Addition and Subtraction stated below: For these two operations, first the numbers are (1) All non-zero digits are significant. For written in such a way that they have the same example in 285 cm, there are three exponent. After that, the coefficients (digit significant figures and in 0.25 mL, there terms) are added or subtracted as the case are two significant figures. may be. (2) Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit Thus, for adding 6.65×104 and 8.95×103, are not significant. Such zero indicates exponent is made same for both the numbers. the position of decimal point. Thus, Thus, we get (6.65×104) + (0.895×104) 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.Then, these numbers can be added as follows (6.65 + 0.895)×104 = 7.545×104 (3) Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has fourSimilarly, the subtraction of two numbers can significant figures.be done as shown below: (4) Zeros at the end or right of a number(2.5 × 10–2) – (4.8 ×10–3) are significant, provided they are on = (2.5 × 10–2) – (0.48 × 10–2) the right side of the decimal point. For = (2.5 – 0.48)×10–2 = 2.02 × 10–2 example, 0.200 g has three significant figures. But, if otherwise, the terminal 1.4.2 Significant Figures zeros are not significant if there is no Every experimental measurement has decimal point. For example, 100 has some amount of uwith it because of limitation of measuring three significant figures and 100.0 has instrument and the skill of the person making four significant figures. Such numbers the measurement. For example, mass of an are better represented in scientific object is obtained using a platform balance notation. We can express the number and it comes out to be 9.4g. On measuring 100 as 1×102 for one significant figure, the mass of this object on an analytical 1.0×102 for two significant figures and balance, the mass obtained is 9.4213g. The 1.00×102 for three significant figures. Reprint 2025-26 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 13 (5) Counting the numbers of object, for Here, 18.0 has only one digit after the decimal example, 2 balls or 20 eggs, have infinite point and the result should be reported only significant figures as these are exact up to one digit after the decimal point, which numbers and can be represented by is 31.1. writing infinite number of zeros after placing a decimal i.e., 2 = 2.000000 or Multiplication and Division of 20 = 20.000000. Significant Figures In numbers written in scientific notation, In these operations, the result must be all digits are significant e.g., 4.01×102 has reported with no more significant figures as three significant figures, and 8.256×10–3 has in the measurement with the few significant four significant figures. figures. However, one would always like the results to be precise and accurate. Precision and 2.5×1.25 = 3.125 accuracy are often referred to while we talk Since 2.5 has two significant figures, about the measurement. the result should not have more than two Precision refers to the closeness of significant figures, thus, it is 3.1. various measurements for the same quantity. While limiting the result to the required However, accuracy is the agreement of a number of significant figures as done in the particular value to the true value of the above mathematical operation, one has to result. For example, if the true value for a keep in mind the following points for rounding result is 2.00 g and student ‘A’ takes two off the numbers measurements and reports the results as 1.95 1. If the rightmost digit to be removed is g and 1.93 g. These values are precise as they more than 5, the preceding number is are close to each other but are not accurate. increased by one. For example, 1.386. If Another student ‘B’ repeats the experiment we have to remove 6, we have to round and obtains 1.94 g and 2.05 g as the results it to 1.39. for two measurements. These observations 2. If the rightmost digit to be removed is are neither precise nor accurate. When the less than 5, the preceding number is not third student ‘C’ repeats these measurements changed. For example, 4.334 if 4 is to and reports 2.01 g and 1.99 g as the result, be removed, then the result is rounded these values are both precise and accurate. upto 4.33. This can be more clearly understood from the 3. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5, data given in Table 1.4. then the preceding number is not changed Table 1.4 Data to Illustrate Precision if it is an even number but it is increased and Accuracy by one if it is an odd number. For example, Measurements/g if 6.35 is to be rounded by removing 5, we 1 2 Average (g) have to increase 3 to 4 giving 6.4 as the result. However, if 6.25 is to be rounded Student A 1.95 1.93 1.940 off it is rounded off to 6.2. Student B 1.94 2.05 1.995 1.4.3 Dimensional Analysis Student C 2.01 1.99 2.000 Often while calculating, there is a need to Addition and Subtraction of convert units from one system to the other. Significant Figures The method used to accomplish this is called factor label method or unit factor methodThe result cannot have more digits to the right or dimensional analysis. This is illustratedof the decimal point than either of the original below.numbers. 12.11 18.0 Example 1.012 A piece of metal is 3 inch (represented by in) 31.122 long. What is its length in cm? Reprint 2025-26 14 chemistry Solution The above is multiplied by the unit factor We know that 1 in = 2.54 cm 3 1 m 3 2 m 3 3 3 2  1000 cm  6 3  3  2  10 m From this equivalence, we can write 10 cm 10 1 in 2 .54 cm Example = 1 = 2 .54 cm 1 in How many seconds are there in 2 days? Solution 1 in 2 .54 cm Here, we know 1 day = 24 hours (h) Thus, equals 1 and 2 .54 cm 1 in 1 day 24 h or = 1 = 24 h 1 day also equals 1. Both of these are called unit then, 1h = 60 min factors. If some number is multiplied by these 1 h 60 min unit factors (i.e., 1), it will not be affected or = 1 = 60 min 1 h otherwise. so, for converting 2 days to seconds, Say, the 3 in given above is multiplied by the unit factor. So, i.e., 2 days – – – – – – = – – – seconds 2 .54 cm The unit factors can be multiplied in3 in = 3 in × = 3 × 2.54 cm = 7.62 cm 1 in series in one step only as follows: 24 h 60 min 60 s Now, the unit factor by which multiplication 2 day × × × 1 day 1 h 1 min 2 .54 cm is to be done is that unit factor ( in 1 in = 2 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 172800 sthe above case) which gives the desired units i.e., the numerator should have that part 1.5 Laws of Chemical which is required in the desired result. Combinations It should also be noted in the above The combination of elements example that units can be handled just like to form compounds is other numerical part. It can be cancelled, governed by the following five divided, multiplied, squared, etc. Let us study basic laws. Antoine Lavoisier one more example. (1743–1794) 1.5.1 Law of Conservation Example of Mass A jug contains 2L of milk. Calculate the This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier volume of the milk in m3. in 1789. He performed careful experimental Solution studies for combustion reactions and reached Since 1 L = 1000 cm3 to the conclusion that in all physical and and 1m = 100 cm, which gives chemical changes, there is no net change in mass duting the process. Hence, he reached 1 m 100 cm = 1 = to the conclusion that matter can neither be 100 cm 1 m created nor destroyed. This is called ‘Law To get m3 from the above unit factors, the of Conservation of Mass’. This law formed first unit factor is taken and it is cubed. the basis for several later developments in 3 3 chemistry. Infact, this was the result of exact  1 m  1 m 3  6 3 1 1 measurement of masses of reactants and  100 cm  10 cm products, and carefully planned experiments Now 2 L = 2 ×1000 cm3 performed by Lavoisier. Reprint 2025-26 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 15 1.5.2 Law of Definite Proportions are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in aThis law was given by, a simple ratio by volume,French chemist, Joseph provided all gases are atProust. He stated that a given the same temperature andcompound always contains pressure.exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. Thus, 100 mL of hydrogen Joseph Louis combine with 50 mL of Gay Lussac Proust worked with two Joseph Proust oxygen to give 100 mL ofsamples of cupric carbonate (1754–1826) water vapour.— one of which was of natural origin and the other was synthetic. He found Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water that the composition of elements present in it 100 mL 50 mL 100 mL was same for both the samples as shown below: Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and % of % of % of oxygen which combine (i.e., 100 mL and copper carbon oxygen 50 mL) bear a simple ratio of 2:1. Natural Sample 51.35 9.74 38.91 Gay Lussac’s discovery of integer ratio in volume relationship is actually the law of Synthetic Sample 51.35 9.74 38.91 definite proportions by volume. The law of Thus, he concluded that irrespective of the definite proportions, stated earlier, was with source, a given compound always contains respect to mass. The Gay Lussac’s law was same elements combined together in the same explained properly by the work of Avogadro proportion by mass. The validity of this law in 1811. has been confirmed by various experiments. It is sometimes also referred to as Law of 1.5.5 Avogadro’s Law Definite Composition. In 1811, Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature1.5.3 Law of Multiple Proportions and pressure should contain equal number This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803. of molecules. Avogadro made a distinction According to this law, if two elements can between atoms and molecules which is combine to form more than one compound, quite understandable in present times. If the masses of one element that combine with we consider again the reaction of hydrogen a fixed mass of the other element, are in the and oxygen to produce water, we see that ratio of small whole numbers. two volumes of hydrogen combine with one For example, hydrogen combines with volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water without leaving any unreacted oxygen. and hydrogen peroxide. Note that in the Fig. 1.9 (Page 16) each Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water box contains equal number of 2g 16g 18g molecules. In fact, Avogadro Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide could explain the above result by considering the molecules 2g 32g 34g to be polyatomic. If hydrogenHere, the masses of oxygen (i.e., 16 g and 32 g), and oxygen were consideredwhich combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen as diatomic as recognised(2g) bear a simple ratio, i.e., 16:32 or 1: 2. now, then the above results Lorenzo Romano 1.5.4 Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous are easily understandable. Amedeo Carlo Volumes However, Dalton and others Avogadro di Quareqa edi This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. believed at that time that Carreto He observed that when gases combine or atoms of the same kind (1776–1856) Reprint 2025-26 16 chemistry Fig. 1.9 Two volumes of hydrogen react with one volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water vapour cannot combine and molecules of oxygen or Dalton’s theory could explain the laws hydrogen containing two atoms did not exist. of chemical combination. However, it could Avogadro’s proposal was published in the not explain the laws of gaseous volumes. It French Journal de Physique. In spite of being could not provide the reason for combining correct, it did not gain much support. of atoms, which was answered later by other After about 50 years, in 1860, the first scientists. international conference on chemistry was 1.7 Atomic and Molecular Massesheld in Karlsruhe, Germany, to resolve After having some idea about the termsvarious ideas. At the meeting, Stanislao atoms and molecules, it is appropriate hereCannizaro presented a sketch of a course of to understand what do we mean by atomicchemical philosophy, which emphasised on and molecular masses.the importance of Avogadro’s work.

3.10 In a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured for different initial concentrations of A and B as given below: A/ mol L–1 0.20 0.20 0.40 B/ mol L–1 0.30 0.10 0.05 r0/mol L–1s–1 5.07 × 10–5 5.07 × 10–5 1.43 × 10–4 What is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B? 3.11 The following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction: 2A + B ® C + D Experiment [A]/mol L–1 [B]/mol L–1 Initial rate of formation of D/mol L–1 min–1 I 0.1 0.1 6.0 × 10–3 II 0.3 0.2 7.2 × 10–2 III 0.3 0.4 2.88 × 10–1 IV 0.4 0.1 2.40 × 10–2 Determine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction. 3.12 The reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order with respect to B. Fill in the blanks in the following table: Experiment [A]/ mol L–1 [B]/ mol L–1 Initial rate/ mol L–1 min–1 I 0.1 0.1 2.0 × 10–2 II – 0.2 4.0 × 10–2 III 0.4 0.4 – IV – 0.2 2.0 × 10–2 3.13 Calculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given below: (i) 200 s–1 (ii) 2 min–1 (iii) 4 years–1 3.14 The half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years. An archaeological artifact containing wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree. Estimate the age of the sample. 3.15 The experimental data for decomposition of N2O5 [2N2O5 ® 4NO2 + O2] in gas phase at 318K are given below: t/s 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 102 × [N2O5]/ 1.63 1.36 1.14 0.93 0.78 0.64 0.53 0.43 0.35 mol L–1 (i) Plot [N2O5] against t. (ii) Find the half-life period for the reaction. (iii) Draw a graph between log[N2O5] and t. (iv) What is the rate law ? Chemistry 86 Reprint 2025-26 (v) Calculate the rate constant. (vi) Calculate the half-life period from k and compare it with (ii).

1.37 Vapour pressures of pure acetone and chloroform at 328 K are 741.8 mm Hg and 632.8 mm Hg respectively. Assuming that they form ideal solution over the entire range of composition, plot ptotal, pchloroform, and pacetone as a function of xacetone. The experimental data observed for different compositions of mixture is: 100 x xacetone 0 11.8 23.4 36.0 50.8 58.2 64.5 72.1 pacetone /mm Hg 0 54.9 110.1 202.4 322.7 405.9 454.1 521.1 pchloroform /mm Hg 632.8 548.1 469.4 359.7 257.7 193.6 161.2 120.7 Plot this data also on the same graph paper. Indicate whether it has positive deviation or negative deviation from the ideal solution. 1.38 Benzene and toluene form ideal solution over the entire range of composition. The vapour pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 300 K are 50.71 mm Hg and 32.06 mm Hg respectively. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour phase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g of toluene. 1.39 The air is a mixture of a number of gases. The major components are oxygen and nitrogen with approximate proportion of 20% is to 79% by volume at 298 K. The water is in equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10 atm. At 298 K if the Henry’s law constants for oxygen and nitrogen at 298 K are 3.30 × 107 mm and 6.51 × 107 mm respectively, calculate the composition of these gases in water. 1.40 Determine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2.47) dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such that its osmotic pressure is 0.75 atm at 27° C. 1.41 Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of K2SO4 in 2 litre of water at 25° C, assuming that it is completely dissociated. Answers to Some Intext Questions 1.1 C6H6 = 15.28%, CCl4 = 84.72% 1.2 0.459, 0.541 1.3 0.024 M, 0.03 M 1.4 36.946 g 1.5 1.5 mol kg–1 , 1.45 mol L–1 0.0263 1.9 23.4 mm Hg 1.10 121.67 g 1.11 5.077 g 1.12 30.96 Pa Chemistry 30 Reprint 2025-26 UnitUnitUnitUnit Unit22 Objectives ElectrochemistryElectrochemistry After studying this Unit, you will be able to · describe an electrochemical cell Chemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy, and differentiate between galvanic conversely, electrical energy can be used to carry out chemical and electrolytic cells; reactions that do not proceed spontaneously.· apply Nernst equation for calculating the emf of galvanic cell and define standard potential of Electrochemistry is the study of production of the cell; · derive relation between standard electricity from energy released during spontaneous potential of the cell, Gibbs energy chemical reactions and the use of electrical energy of cell reaction and its equilibrium to bring about non-spontaneous chemical constant; transformations. The subject is of importance both · define resistivity (r), conductivity for theoretical and practical considerations. A large (k) and molar conductivity (✆m) of number of metals, sodium hydroxide, chlorine, ionic solutions; fluorine and many other chemicals are produced by · differentiate between ionic electrochemical methods. Batteries and fuel cells (electrolytic) and electronic convert chemical energy into electrical energy and are conductivity; · describe the method for used on a large scale in various instruments and measurement of conductivity of devices. The reactions carried out electrochemically electrolytic solutions and can be energy efficient and less polluting. Therefore, calculation of their molar study of electrochemistry is important for creating new conductivity; technologies that are ecofriendly. The transmission of · justify the variation of sensory signals through cells to brain and vice versa conductivity and molar and communication between the cells are known to conductivity of solutions with have electrochemical origin. Electrochemistry, is change in their concentration and therefore, a very vast and interdisciplinary subject. In define m (molar conductivity at this Unit, we will cover only some of its important zero concentration or infinite elementary aspects. dilution); · enunciate Kohlrausch law and learn its applications; · understand quantitative aspects of electrolysis; · describe the construction of some primary and secondary batteries and fuel cells; · explain corrosion as an electrochemical process. Reprint 2025-26 2.12.12.12.12.1 ElectrochemicalElectrochemicalElectrochemicalElectrochemicalElectrochemical We had studied the construction and functioning of Daniell cell CellsCellsCellsCellsCells (Fig. 2.1). This cell converts the chemical energy liberated during the redox reaction Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (2.1) to electrical energy and has an electrical potential equal to 1.1 V when concentration of Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions is unity (1 mol dm–3)*. Such a device is called a galvanic or a voltaic cell. If an external opposite potential is applied in the galvanic cell [Fig. 2.2(a)] and increased slowly, we find that the reaction continues to take place till the opposing voltage reaches the value 1.1 V [Fig. 2.2(b)] when, the reaction stops altogether and no current flows through the cell. Any further increase in the external potential again starts the reaction but in the opposite direction [Fig. 2.2(c)]. It now functions as an electrolytic cell, a device for using electrical energy to carry non-spontaneous chemical reactions. Both types of cells are Fig. 2.1: Daniell cell having electrodes of zinc and quite important and we shall study some of copper dipping in the solutions of their their salient features in the following pages. respective salts. Eext < 1.1V Eext = 1.1V (a) (b) e current cathodeanode I=0 Zn salt Cu Zn Cu -ve bridge +ve When Eext = 1.1 V (i) No flow of electrons or current. (ii) No chemical ZnSO4 CuSO4 ZnSO4 CuSO4 reaction. When Eext < 1.1 V Eext >1.1 (i) Electrons flow from Zn rod to (c) Cu rod hence current flows from Cu to Zn. – When Eext > 1.1 V (ii) Zn dissolves at anode and e (i) Electrons flow copper deposits at cathode. Cathode Current Anode from Cu to Zn +ve –ve and current flows Zn Cu from Zn to Cu. Fig. 2.2 (ii) Zinc is deposited Functioning of Daniell at the zinc cell when external electrode and voltage Eext opposing the copper dissolves at cell potential is applied. copper electrode. *Strictly speaking activity should be used instead of concentration. It is directly proportional to concentration. In dilute solutions, it is equal to concentration. You will study more about it in higher classes. Chemistry 32 Reprint 2025-26 2.22.22.22.22.2 GalvanicGalvanicGalvanicGalvanicGalvanic CellsCellsCellsCellsCells As mentioned earlier a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy. In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical work which may be used for running a motor or other electrical gadgets like heater, fan, geyser, etc. Daniell cell discussed earlier is one such cell in which the following redox reaction occurs. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s) This reaction is a combination of two half reactions whose addition gives the overall cell reaction: (i) Cu2+ + 2e– ® Cu(s) (reduction half reaction) (2.2) (ii) Zn(s) ® Zn2+ + 2e– (oxidation half reaction) (2.3) These reactions occur in two different portions of the Daniell cell. The reduction half reaction occurs on the copper electrode while the oxidation half reaction occurs on the zinc electrode. These two portions of the cell are also called half-cells or redox couples. The copper electrode may be called the reduction half cell and the zinc electrode, the oxidation half-cell. We can construct innumerable number of galvanic cells on the pattern of Daniell cell by taking combinations of different half-cells. Each half- cell consists of a metallic electrode dipped into an electrolyte. The two half-cells are connected by a metallic wire through a voltmeter and a switch externally. The electrolytes of the two half-cells are connected internally through a salt bridge as shown in Fig. 2.1. Sometimes, both the electrodes dip in the same electrolyte solution and in such cases we do not require a salt bridge. At each electrode-electrolyte interface there is a tendency of metal ions from the solution to deposit on the metal electrode trying to make it positively charged. At the same time, metal atoms of the electrode have a tendency to go into the solution as ions and leave behind the electrons at the electrode trying to make it negatively charged. At equilibrium, there is a separation of charges and depending on the tendencies of the two opposing reactions, the electrode may be positively or negatively charged with respect to the solution. A potential difference develops between the electrode and the electrolyte which is called electrode potential. When the concentrations of all the species involved in a half-cell is unity then the electrode potential is known as standard electrode potential. According to IUPAC convention, standard reduction potentials are now called standard electrode potentials. In a galvanic cell, the half-cell in which oxidation takes place is called anode and it has a negative potential with respect to the solution. The other half-cell in which reduction takes place is called cathode and it has a positive potential with respect to the solution. Thus, there exists a potential difference between the two electrodes and as soon as the switch is in the on position the electrons flow from negative electrode to positive electrode. The direction of current flow is opposite to that of electron flow. 33 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 The potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic cell is called the cell potential and is measured in volts. The cell potential is the difference between the electrode potentials (reduction potentials) of the cathode and anode. It is called the cell electromotive force (emf) of the cell when no current is drawn through the cell. It is now an accepted convention that we keep the anode on the left and the cathode on the right while representing the galvanic cell. A galvanic cell is generally represented by putting a vertical line between metal and electrolyte solution and putting a double vertical line between the two electrolytes connected by a salt bridge. Under this convention the emf of the cell is positive and is given by the potential of the half- cell on the right hand side minus the potential of the half-cell on the left hand side i.e., Ecell = Eright – Eleft This is illustrated by the following example: Cell reaction: Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) ¾® Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s) (2.4) Half-cell reactions: Cathode (reduction): 2Ag+(aq) + 2e– ® 2Ag(s) (2.5) Anode (oxidation): Cu(s) ® Cu2+(aq) + 2e– (2.6) It can be seen that the sum of (3.5) and (3.6) leads to overall reaction (2.4) in the cell and that silver electrode acts as a cathode and copper electrode acts as an anode. The cell can be represented as: Cu(s)|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag(s) and we have Ecell = Eright – Eleft = EAg+úAg – ECu2+úCu (2.7) 2.2.1 The potential of individual half-cell cannot be measured. We can Measurement measure only the difference between the two half-cell potentials that of Electrode gives the emf of the cell. If we arbitrarily choose the potential of one Potential electrode (half-cell) then that of the other can be determined with respect to this. According to convention, a half-cell called standard hydrogen electrode (Fig.3.3) represented by Pt(s)ú H2(g)ú H+(aq), is assigned a zero potential at all temperatures corresponding to the reaction 1 H+ (aq) + e– ® H2(g) 2 The standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum electrode coated with platinum black. The electrode is dipped in an acidic solution and pure hydrogen gas is bubbled through it. The concentration of both the reduced and oxidised forms of hydrogen is maintained at unity (Fig. 2.3). This implies that the pressure of hydrogen gas is one bar and the concentration of hydrogen ion in the Fig. 2.3: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE). solution is one molar. Chemistry 34 Reprint 2025-26 At 298 K the emf of the cell, standard hydrogen electrode ççsecond half-cell constructed by taking standard hydrogen electrode as anode (reference half-cell) and the other half-cell as cathode, gives the reduction potential of the other half-cell. If the concentrations of the oxidised and the reduced forms of the species in the right hand half-cell are unity, then the cell potential is equal to standard electrode potential, Eo R of the given half-cell. Eo = EoR – Eo L As Eo L for standard hydrogen electrode is zero. Eo = Eo R – 0 = EoR The measured emf of the cell: Pt(s) ç H2(g, 1 bar) ç H + (aq, 1 M) çç Cu 2+ (aq, 1 M) ú Cu is 0.34 V and it is also the value for the standard electrode potential of the half-cell corresponding to the reaction: Cu2+ (aq, 1M) + 2 e – ® Cu(s) Similarly, the measured emf of the cell: Pt(s) ç H2(g, 1 bar) ç H+ (aq, 1 M) çç Zn2+ (aq, 1M) ç Zn is -0.76 V corresponding to the standard electrode potential of the half-cell reaction: Zn2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2e– ® Zn(s) The positive value of the standard electrode potential in the first case indicates that Cu2+ ions get reduced more easily than H+ ions. The reverse process cannot occur, that is, hydrogen ions cannot oxidise Cu (or alternatively we can say that hydrogen gas can reduce copper ion) under the standard conditions described above. Thus, Cu does not dissolve in HCl. In nitric acid it is oxidised by nitrate ion and not by hydrogen ion. The negative value of the standard electrode potential in the second case indicates that hydrogen ions can oxidise zinc (or zinc can reduce hydrogen ions). In view of this convention, the half reaction for the Daniell cell in Fig. 2.1 can be written as: Left electrode: Zn(s) ® Zn 2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e – Right electrode: Cu 2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e – ® Cu(s) The overall reaction of the cell is the sum of above two reactions and we obtain the equation: Zn(s) + Cu 2+ (aq) ® Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s) emf of the cell = Eocell = Eo R – Eo L = 0.34V – (– 0.76)V = 1.10 V Sometimes metals like platinum or gold are used as inert electrodes. They do not participate in the reaction but provide their surface for oxidation or reduction reactions and for the conduction of electrons. For example, Pt is used in the following half-cells: Hydrogen electrode: Pt(s)|H2(g)| H+(aq) With half-cell reaction: H+ (aq)+ e– ® ½ H2(g) Bromine electrode: Pt(s)|Br2(aq)| Br–(aq) 35 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 With half-cell reaction: ½ Br2(aq) + e– ® Br–(aq) The standard electrode potentials are very important and we can extract a lot of useful information from them. The values of standard electrode potentials for some selected half-cell reduction reactions are given in Table 2.1. If the standard electrode potential of an electrode is greater than zero then its reduced form is more stable compared to hydrogen gas. Similarly, if the standard electrode potential is negative then hydrogen gas is more stable than the reduced form of the species. It can be seen that the standard electrode potential for fluorine is the highest in the Table indicating that fluorine gas (F2) has the maximum tendency to get reduced to fluoride ions (F–) and therefore fluorine gas is the strongest oxidising agent and fluoride ion is the weakest reducing agent. Lithium has the lowest electrode potential indicating that lithium ion is the weakest oxidising agent while lithium metal is the most powerful reducing agent in an aqueous solution. It may be seen that as we go from top to bottom in Table 2.1 the standard electrode potential decreases and with this, decreases the oxidising power of the species on the left and increases the reducing power of the species on the right hand side of the reaction. Electrochemical cells are extensively used for determining the pH of solutions, solubility product, equilibrium constant and other thermodynamic properties and for potentiometric titrations. IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 2.1 How would you determine the standard electrode potential of the system Mg2+|Mg? 2.2 Can you store copper sulphate solutions in a zinc pot? 2.3 Consult the table of standard electrode potentials and suggest three substances that can oxidise ferrous ions under suitable conditions. 2.32.32.32.32.3 NernstNernstNernstNernstNernst We have assumed in the previous section that the concentration of all EquationEquationEquationEquationEquation the species involved in the electrode reaction is unity. This need not be always true. Nernst showed that for the electrode reaction: Mn+(aq) + ne–® M(s) the electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to standard hydrogen electrode can be represented by: RT o [M] E = E ln ( M n + / M ) ( M n + / M ) – nF [M n+ ] but concentration of solid M is taken as unity and we have o RT 1 E = E (2.8) ( M n + / M ) ( M n + /M ) – nF ln [M n+ ] o E ( M n + / M ) has already been defined, R is gas constant (8.314 JK–1 mol–1), F is Faraday constant (96487 C mol–1), T is temperature in kelvin and [Mn+] is the concentration of the species, Mn+. Chemistry 36 Reprint 2025-26 Table 2.1: Standard Electrode Potentials at 298 K Ions are present as aqueous species and H2O as liquid; gases and solids are shown by g and s. Reaction (Oxidised form + ne– ® Reduced form) E o/V ® 2F– 2.87 F2(g) + 2e– Co3+ + e– ® Co2+ 1.81 H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– ® 2H2O 1.78 MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– ® Mn2+ + 4H2O 1.51 Au3+ + 3e– ® Au(s) 1.40 Cl2(g) + 2e– ® 2Cl– 1.36 Cr2O72– + 14H+ + 6e– ® 2Cr3+ + 7H2O 1.33 O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e– ® 2H2O 1.23 MnO2(s) + 4H+ + 2e– ® Mn2+ + 2H2O 1.23 Br2 + 2e– ® 2Br– 1.09 NO3– + 4H+ + 3e– ® NO(g) + 2H2O 0.97 2Hg2+ + 2e– ® Hg22+ 0.92 Ag+ + e– ® Ag(s) 0.80 agent agent Fe3+ + e– ® Fe2+ 0.77 O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e– ® H2O2 0.68 I2 + 2e– ® 2I– 0.54 oxidising reducing 0.52 of Cu+ + e– ® Cu(s) of Cu2+ + 2e– ® Cu(s) 0.34 AgCl(s) + e– ® Ag(s) + Cl– 0.22 strength AgBr(s) + e– ® Ag(s) + Br– strength 0.10 2H+ + 2e– ® H2(g) 0.00 Pb2+ + 2e– ® Pb(s) –0.13 Sn2+ + 2e– ® Sn(s) –0.14 Increasing Increasing Ni2+ + 2e– ® Ni(s) –0.25 Fe2+ + 2e– ® Fe(s) –0.44 Cr3+ + 3e– ® Cr(s) –0.74 Zn2+ + 2e– ® Zn(s) –0.76 2H2O + 2e– ® H2(g) + 2OH–(aq) –0.83 Al3+ + 3e– ® Al(s) –1.66 Mg2+ + 2e– ® Mg(s) –2.36 Na+ + e– ® Na(s) –2.71 Ca2+ + 2e– ® Ca(s) –2.87 K+ + e– ® K(s) –2.93 Li+ + e– ® Li(s) –3.05 1. A negative Eo means that the redox couple is a stronger reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple. 2. A positive Eo means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple. 37 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 In Daniell cell, the electrode potential for any given concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions, we write For Cathode: E E o RT 1 (2.9)  Cu 2  /Cu  = (Cu 2 + /Cu ) – 2F ln   Cu 2   aq   For Anode: E E o RT 1 (2.10)  Zn 2  /Zn  = ( Zn 2 + / Zn ) – 2F ln   Zn 2   aq   E E 2  2  /Zn  The cell potential, E(cell) =  Cu /Cu  –  Zn o RT 1 E o RT 1 E = (Cu – ( Zn 2 + / Cu ) – 2 F ln 2 + / Zn ) + 2 F ln    Zn 2+ (aq)   Cu 2+ (aq) E o E o RT 1 1 – ln = (Cu 2 + / Cu ) – ( Zn 2 + / Zn ) – 2F ln    Cu 2+  aq    Zn 2+  aq   2  ] RT [ Zn o E(cell) = E ( cell ) – 2 F ln 2 + (2.11) [Cu ] It can be seen that E(cell) depends on the concentration of both Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions. It increases with increase in the concentration of Cu2+ ions and decrease in the concentration of Zn2+ ions. By converting the natural logarithm in Eq. (2.11) to the base 10 and substituting the values of R, F and T = 298 K, it reduces to 2 + ] 0 .059 [ Zn (2.12) 2 + ] E(cell) = E (ocell ) – 2 log [Cu We should use the same number of electrons (n) for both the electrodes and thus for the following cell Ni(s)ú Ni2+(aq) úú Ag+(aq)ú Ag The cell reaction is Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) ® Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) The Nernst equation can be written as RT [Ni 2+ ] o + E(cell) = E ( cell ) – 2F ln [Ag ]2 and for a general electrochemical reaction of the type: a A + bB ne– cC + dD Nernst equation can be written as: RT E(cell) = E (ocell ) – nF 1nQ RT [C]c [D]d o (2.13) = E ( cell ) – nF ln [A] a [B]b Chemistry 38 Reprint 2025-26 Represent the cell in which the following reaction takes place ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.12.12.12.12.1 Mg(s) + 2Ag+(0.0001M) ® Mg2+(0.130M) + 2Ag(s) Calculate its E(cell) if E (ocell ) = 3.17 V. The cell can be written as Mgú Mg2+(0.130M)úú Ag+(0.0001M)ú Ag SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution 2 + Mg RT o E = E ln (  cell  cell ) – 2F + 2 Ag 0 .059V 0.130 = 3.17 V – log 2 = 3.17 V – 0.21V = 2.96 V. 2 ( 0 . 0001) 2.3.1 Equilibrium If the circuit in Daniell cell (Fig. 2.1) is closed then we note that the reaction Constant Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (2.1) from Nernst takes place and as time passes, the concentration of Zn2+ keeps Equation on increasing while the concentration of Cu2+ keeps on decreasing. At the same time voltage of the cell as read on the voltmeter keeps on decreasing. After some time, we shall note that there is no change in the concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions and at the same time, voltmeter gives zero reading. This indicates that equilibrium has been attained. In this situation the Nernst equation may be written as: o 2.303 RT [Zn 2 + ] 2 + E(cell) = 0 = E ( cell ) – 2 F log [Cu ] o 2.303 RT [Zn 2  ] or E ( cell ) = log 2  2 F [Cu ] But at equilibrium, [ Zn 2 + ] = Kc for the reaction 2.1 [Cu2 + ] and at T = 298K the above equation can be written as o 0. 059 V o E ( cell ) = log KC = 1.1 V ( E ( cell ) = 1.1V) 2 (1.1V × 2) log KC =  37.288 0.059 V KC = 2 × 1037 at 298K. In general, o 2.303RT E ( cell ) = log KC (2.14) nF Thus, Eq. (2.14) gives a relationship between equilibrium constant of the reaction and standard potential of the cell in which that reaction takes place. Thus, equilibrium constants of the reaction, difficult to measure otherwise, can be calculated from the corresponding Eo value of the cell. 39 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.22.22.22.22.2 Calculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction: Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) ® Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) Eo( cell ) = 0.46 V o 0. 059 V SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution E ( cell ) = log KC = 0.46 V or 2 0 .46 V × 2 = 15.6 log KC = 0 .059 V KC = 3.92 × 1015 2.3.2 Electro- Electrical work done in one second is equal to electrical potential chemical multiplied by total charge passed. If we want to obtain maximum work Cell and from a galvanic cell then charge has to be passed reversibly. The Gibbs reversible work done by a galvanic cell is equal to decrease in its Gibbs Energy of energy and therefore, if the emf of the cell is E and nF is the amount the Reaction of charge passed and DrG is the Gibbs energy of the reaction, then DrG = – nFE(cell) (2.15) It may be remembered that E(cell) is an intensive parameter but DrG is an extensive thermodynamic property and the value depends on n. Thus, if we write the reaction Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ¾® Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (2.1) DrG = – 2FE(cell) but when we write the reaction 2 Zn (s) + 2 Cu2+(aq) ¾®2 Zn2+(aq) + 2Cu(s) DrG = – 4FE(cell) If the concentration of all the reacting species is unity, then E(cell) = E (ocell ) and we have DrGo = – nF E(cell)o (2.16) Thus, from the measurement of E (ocell ) we can obtain an important thermodynamic quantity, DrGo, standard Gibbs energy of the reaction. From the latter we can calculate equilibrium constant by the equation: DrGo = –RT ln K. ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.32.32.32.32.3 The standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1.1V. Calculate the standard Gibbs energy for the reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ¾® Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution DrGo = – nF E(cell)o n in the above equation is 2, F = 96487 C mol–1 and E o( cell ) = 1.1 V Therefore, DrGo = – 2 × 1.1V × 96487 C mol–1 = – 21227 J mol–1 = – 212.27 kJ mol–1 Chemistry 40 Reprint 2025-26 IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 2.4 Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution whose pH is 10. 2.5 Calculate the emf of the cell in which the following reaction takes place: Ni(s) + 2Ag+ (0.002 M) ® Ni2+ (0.160 M) + 2Ag(s) Given that Ecello = 1.05 V 2.6 The cell in which the following reaction occurs: E o = 0.236 V at 298 K. 2Fe 3 + ( aq ) + 2I − ( aq ) → 2Fe 2 + ( aq ) + I 2 ( s ) has cell Calculate the standard Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant of the cell reaction. 2.42.42.42.42.4 ConductanceConductanceConductanceConductanceConductance It is necessary to define a few terms before we consider the subject of ofofofofof ElectrolyticElectrolyticElectrolyticElectrolyticElectrolytic conductance of electricity through electrolytic solutions. The electrical resistance is represented by the symbol ‘R’ and it is measured in ohm (W) SolutionsSolutionsSolutionsSolutionsSolutions which in terms of SI base units is equal to (kg m2)/(S3 A2). It can be measured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge with which you are familiar from your study of physics. The electrical resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length, l, and inversely proportional to its area of cross section, A. That is, l l R µ or R = r (2.17) A A The constant of proportionality, r (Greek, rho), is called resistivity (specific resistance). Its SI units are ohm metre (W m) and quite often its submultiple, ohm centimetre (W cm) is also used. IUPAC recommends the use of the term resistivity over specific resistance and hence in the rest of the book we shall use the term resistivity. Physically, the resistivity for a substance is its resistance when it is one metre long and its area of cross section is one m2. It can be seen that: 1 W m = 100 W cm or 1 W cm = 0.01 W m The inverse of resistance, R, is called conductance, G, and we have the relation: 1 A A G = = = κ (2.18) R ρ l l The SI unit of conductance is siemens, represented by the symbol ‘S’ and is equal to ohm–1 (also known as mho) or W–1. The inverse of resistivity, called conductivity (specific conductance) is represented by the symbol, k (Greek, kappa). IUPAC has recommended the use of term conductivity over specific conductance and hence we shall use the term conductivity in the rest of the book. The SI units of conductivity are S m–1 but quite often, k is expressed in S cm–1. Conductivity of a material in S m–1 is its conductance when it is 1 m long and its area of cross section is 1 m2. It may be noted that 1 S cm–1 = 100 S m–1. 41 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 Table 2.2: The values of Conductivity of some Selected Materials at 298.15 K Material Conductivity/ Material Conductivity/ S m–1 S m–1 Conductors Aqueous Solutions Sodium 2.1×103 Pure water 3.5×10–5 Copper 5.9×103 0.1 M HCl 3.91 Silver 6.2×103 0.01M KCl 0.14 Gold 4.5×103 0.01M NaCl 0.12 Iron 1.0×103 0.1 M HAc 0.047 Graphite 1.2×10 0.01M HAc 0.016 Insulators Semiconductors Glass 1.0×10–16 CuO 1×10–7 Teflon 1.0×10–18 Si 1.5×10–2 Ge 2.0 It can be seen from Table 2.2 that the magnitude of conductivity varies a great deal and depends on the nature of the material. It also depends on the temperature and pressure at which the measurements are made. Materials are classified into conductors, insulators and semiconductors depending on the magnitude of their conductivity. Metals and their alloys have very large conductivity and are known as conductors. Certain non-metals like carbon-black, graphite and some organic polymers* are also electronically conducting. Substances like glass, ceramics, etc., having very low conductivity are known as insulators. Substances like silicon, doped silicon and gallium arsenide having conductivity between conductors and insulators are called semiconductors and are important electronic materials. Certain materials called superconductors by definition have zero resistivity or infinite conductivity. Earlier, only metals and their alloys at very low temperatures (0 to 15 K) were known to behave as superconductors, but nowadays a number of ceramic materials and mixed oxides are also known to show superconductivity at temperatures as high as 150 K. Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic conductance and is due to the movement of electrons. The electronic conductance depends on (i) the nature and structure of the metal (ii) the number of valence electrons per atom (iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of temperature). * Electronically conducting polymers – In 1977 MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa discovered that acetylene gas can be polymerised to produce a polymer, polyacetylene when exposed to vapours of iodine acquires metallic lustre and conductivity. Since then several organic conducting polymers have been made such as polyaniline, polypyrrole and polythiophene. These organic polymers which have properties like metals, being composed wholly of elements like carbon, hydrogen and occasionally nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur, are much lighter than normal metals and can be used for making light-weight batteries. Besides, they have the mechanical properties of polymers such as flexibility so that one can make electronic devices such as transistors that can bend like a sheet of plastic. For the discovery of conducting polymers, MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the year 2000. Chemistry 42 Reprint 2025-26 As the electrons enter at one end and go out through the other end, the composition of the metallic conductor remains unchanged. The mechanism of conductance through semiconductors is more complex. We already know that even very pure water has small amounts of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions (~10–7M) which lend it very low conductivity (3.5 × 10–5 S m–1). When electrolytes are dissolved in water, they furnish their own ions in the solution hence its conductivity also increases. The conductance of electricity by ions present in the solutions is called electrolytic or ionic conductance. The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic) solutions depends on: (i) the nature of the electrolyte added (ii) size of the ions produced and their solvation (iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity (iv) concentration of the electrolyte (v) temperature (it increases with the increase of temperature). Passage of direct current through ionic solution over a prolonged period can lead to change in its composition due to electrochemical reactions (Section 2.4.1). 2.4.1 Measurement We know that accurate measurement of an unknown resistance can be of the performed on a Wheatstone bridge. However, for measuring the resistance Conductivity of an ionic solution we face two problems. Firstly, passing direct current of Ionic (DC) changes the composition of the solution. Secondly, a solution cannot Solutions be connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or other solid conductor. The first difficulty is resolved by using an alternating current (AC) source of power. The second problem is solved by using a specially designed vessel called conductivity cell. It is available in several designs and two simple ones are shown in Fig. 2.4. Connecting Connecting wires wires Platinized Pt Fig. 2.4 electrodes Two different types of conductivity cells. Platinized Pt electrode Platinized Pt electrode Basically it consists of two platinum electrodes coated with platinum black (finely divided metallic Pt is deposited on the electrodes electrochemically). These have area of cross section equal to ‘A’ and are separated by distance ‘l’. Therefore, solution confined between these electrodes is a column of length l and area of cross section A. The resistance of such a column of solution is then given by the equation: l l R = r = (2.17) A A 43 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 The quantity l/A is called cell constant denoted by the symbol, G*. It depends on the distance between the electrodes and their area of cross-section and has the dimension of length–1 and can be calculated if we know l and A. Measurement of l and A is not only inconvenient but also unreliable. The cell constant is usually determined by measuring the resistance of the cell containing a solution whose conductivity is already known. For this purpose, we generally use KCl solutions whose conductivity is known accurately at various concentrations (Table 2.3) and at different temperatures. The cell constant, G*, is then given by the equation: l G* = = R k (2.18) A Table 2.3: Conductivity and Molar conductivity of KCl solutions at 298.15K Concentration/Molarity Conductivity Molar Conductivity mol L–1 mol m–3 S cm–1 S m–1 S cm2mol–1 S m2 mol–1 1.000 1000 0.1113 11.13 111.3 111.3×10–4 0.100 100.0 0.0129 1.29 129.0 129.0×10–4 0.010 10.00 0.00141 0.141 141.0 141.0×10–4 Once the cell constant is determined, we can use it for measuring the resistance or conductivity of any solution. The set up for the measurement of the resistance is shown in Fig. 2.5. It consists of two resistances R3 and R4, a variable resistance R1 and the conductivity cell having the unknown resistance R2. The Wheatstone bridge is fed by an oscillator O (a source of a.c. power in the audio frequency range 550 to 5000 cycles per second). P is a suitable detector (a headphone or other electronic device) and the bridge is balanced when no current passes through the detector. Under these conditions: Fig. 2.5: Arrangement for measurement of R 1 R 4 resistance of a solution of an Unknown resistance R2 = (2.19) R 3 electrolyte. These days, inexpensive conductivity meters are available which can directly read the conductance or resistance of the solution in the conductivity cell. Once the cell constant and the resistance of the solution in the cell is determined, the conductivity of the solution is given by the equation: cell constant G*   (2.20) R R The conductivity of solutions of different electrolytes in the same solvent and at a given temperature differs due to charge and size of the Chemistry 44 Reprint 2025-26 ions in which they dissociate, the concentration of ions or ease with which the ions move under a potential gradient. It, therefore, becomes necessary to define a physically more meaningful quantity called molar conductivity denoted by the symbol Lm (Greek, lambda). It is related to the conductivity of the solution by the equation:  Molar conductivity = Lm = (2.21) c In the above equation, if k is expressed in S m–1 and the concentration, c in mol m–3 then the units of Lm are in S m2 mol–1. It may be noted that: 1 mol m–3 = 1000(L/m3) × molarity (mol/L), and hence  (S cm  1 ) Lm(S cm2 mol–1) =  3 1 1000 L m × molarity (mol L ) If we use S cm–1 as the units for k and mol cm–3, the units of concentration, then the units for Lm are S cm2 mol–1. It can be calculated by using the equation:  (S cm 1 ) × 1000 (cm 3 /L) Lm (S cm2 mol–1) = molarity (mol/L) Both type of units are used in literature and are related to each other by the equations: 1 S m2mol–1 = 104 S cm2mol–1 or 1 S cm2mol–1 = 10–4 S m2mol–1. Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0.1 mol L–1 KCl solution is ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.42.42.42.42.4 100 W . If the resistance of the same cell when filled with 0.02 mol L–1 KCl solution is 520 W , calculate the conductivity and molar conductivity of 0.02 mol L–1 KCl solution. The conductivity of 0.1 mol L–1 KCl solution is 1.29 S/m. SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution The cell constant is given by the equation: Cell constant = G* = conductivity × resistance = 1.29 S/m × 100 W = 129 m–1 = 1.29 cm–1 Conductivity of 0.02 mol L–1 KCl solution = cell constant / resistance G * 129 m –1 = = = 0.248 S m–1 R 520  Concentration = 0.02 mol L–1 = 1000 × 0.02 mol m–3 = 20 mol m–3  Molar conductivity = m  c 248 × 10 –3 S m –1 = –3 = 124 × 10–4 S m2mol–1 20 mol m 1.29 cm –1 Alternatively, k = = 0.248 × 10–2 S cm–1 520  45 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 and Lm = k × 1000 cm3 L–1 molarity–1 0.248×10 –2 S cm –1 ×1000 cm 3 L–1 = –1 0.02 mol L = 124 S cm2 mol–1 ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.52.52.52.52.5 The electrical resistance of a column of 0.05 mol L–1 NaOH solution of diameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is 5.55 × 103 ohm. Calculate its resistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity. SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution A = p r2 = 3.14 × 0.52 cm2 = 0.785 cm2 = 0.785 × 10–4 m2 l = 50 cm = 0.5 m  l RA 5.55  10 3  0.785cm 2 R = or    = 87.135 W cm A l 50cm 1  1  Conductivity =  = =   S cm–1   87.135  = 0.01148 S cm–1  × 1000 Molar conductivity, m = cm3 L–1 c 0.01148 S cm –1 ×1000 cm 3 L–1 = –1 0.05 mol L = 229.6 S cm2 mol–1 If we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of ‘m’ instead of ‘cm’, RA = l 5.55 × 10 3  × 0.785×10 –4 m 2 = = 87.135 ×10–2 W m 0.5 m 1 100  =  m = 1.148 S m–1 = 87.135  1.148 S m –1 and m = = –3 = 229.6 × 10–4 S m2 mol–1. c 50 mol m 2.4.2 Variation of Both conductivity and molar conductivity change with the Conductivity concentration of the electrolyte. Conductivity always decreases with and Molar decrease in concentration both, for weak and strong electrolytes. Conductivity This can be explained by the fact that the number of ions per unit with volume that carry the current in a solution decreases on dilution. Concentration The conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the conductance of one unit volume of solution kept between two Chemistry 46 Reprint 2025-26 platinum electrodes with unit area of cross section and at a distance of unit length. This is clear from the equation: A G = =  (both A and l are unity in their appropriate units in l m or cm) Molar conductivity of a solution at a given concentration is the conductance of the volume V of solution containing one mole of electrolyte kept between two electrodes with area of cross section A and distance of unit length. Therefore, κA Λm = =κ l Since l = 1 and A = V ( volume containing 1 mole of electrolyte) Lm = k V (2.22) Molar conductivity increases with decrease in concentration. This is because the total volume, V, of solution containing one mole of electrolyte also increases. It has been found that decrease in k on dilution of a solution is more than compensated by increase in its volume. Physically, it means that at a given concentration, Lm can be defined as the conductance of the electrolytic solution kept between the electrodes of a conductivity cell at unit distance but having area of cross section large enough to accommodate sufficient volume of solution that contains one mole of the electrolyte. When concentration approaches zero, the molar conductivity is known as limiting molar conductivity and is represented by theFig. 2.6: Molar conductivity versus c½ for acetic acid (weak electrolyte) and potassium symbol L°m . The variation in Lm with chloride (strong electrolyte) in aqueous concentration is different (Fig. 2.6) for solutions. strong and weak electrolytes. Strong Electrolytes For strong electrolytes, Lm increases slowly with dilution and can be represented by the equation: Lm = L°m – A c ½ (2.23) It can be seen that if we plot (Fig. 2.6) Lm against c1/2, we obtain a straight line with intercept equal to L°m and slope equal to ‘–A’. The value of the constant ‘A’ for a given solvent and temperature depends on the type of electrolyte i.e., the charges on the cation and anion produced on the dissociation of the electrolyte in the solution. Thus, NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4 are known as 1-1, 2-1 and 2-2 electrolytes respectively. All electrolytes of a particular type have the same value for ‘A’. 47 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.62.62.62.62.6 The molar conductivity of KCl solutions at different concentrations at 298 K are given below: c/mol L–1 Lm/S cm2 mol–1 0.000198 148.61 0.000309 148.29 0.000521 147.81 0.000989 147.09 Show that a plot between Lm and c1/2 is a straight line. Determine the values of L°m and A for KCl. SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution Taking the square root of concentration we obtain: c1/2/(mol L–1 )1/2 Lm/S cm2mol–1 0.01407 148.61 0.01758 148.29 0.02283 147.81 0.03145 147.09 A plot of Lm ( y-axis) and c1/2 (x-axis) is shown in (Fig. 3.7). It can be seen that it is nearly a straight line. From the intercept (c1/2 = 0), we find that L°m = 150.0 S cm2 mol–1 and A = – slope = 87.46 S cm2 mol–1/(mol/L–1)1/2. Fig. 2.7: Variation of Lm against c½. Chemistry 48 Reprint 2025-26 Kohlrausch examined L°m values for a number of strong electrolytes and observed certain regularities. He noted that the difference in L°m of the electrolytes NaX and KX for any X is nearly constant. For example at 298 K: m L°m (KCl) – L°m (NaCl) = L°m (KBr) – L° (NaBr) = L°m (KI) – L°m (NaI) ≃ 23.4 S cm2 mol–1 and similarly it was found that L°m (NaBr)– L°m (NaCl) = L°m (KBr) – L°m (KCl) ≃ 1.8 S cm2 mol–1 On the basis of the above observations he enunciated Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions. The law states that limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the individual contributions of the anion and cation of the electrolyte. Thus, – are limiting molar conductivity of the sodium and chlorideif l°Na+ and l°Cl ions respectively, then the limiting molar conductivity for sodium chloride is given by the equation: l° l° L°m – (2.24) (NaCl) = Na+ + Cl In general, if an electrolyte on dissociation gives n+ cations and n– anions then its limiting molar conductivity is given by: L°m = n+ l°+ + n– l°– (2.25) Here, l°+ and l°– are the limiting molar conductivities of the cation and anion respectively. The values of l° for some cations and anions at 298 K are given in Table 2.4. Table 2.4: Limiting Molar Conductivity for some Ions in Water at 298 K Ion l0/(S cm2mol–1) Ion l 0/(S cm2 mol–1) H+ 349.6 OH– 199.1 Na+ 50.1 Cl– 76.3 K+ 73.5 Br– 78.1 Ca2+ 119.0 CH3COO– 40.9 2 Mg2+ 106.0 SO4 160.0 Weak Electrolytes Weak electrolytes like acetic acid have lower degree of dissociation at higher concentrations and hence for such electrolytes, the change in Lm with dilution is due to increase in the degree of dissociation and consequently the number of ions in total volume of solution that contains 1 mol of electrolyte. In such cases Lm increases steeply (Fig. 2.6) on dilution, especially near lower concentrations. Therefore, L°m cannot be obtained by extrapolation of Lm to zero concentration. At infinite dilution (i.e., concentration c ® zero) electrolyte dissociates completely (a =1), but at such low concentration the conductivity of the solution is so low that it cannot be measured accurately. Therefore, L°m for weak electrolytes is obtained by using Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions (Example 2.8). At any concentration c, if a is the degree of dissociation 49 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 then it can be approximated to the ratio of molar conductivity Lm at the concentration c to limiting molar conductivity, L0m . Thus we have: m  = ° (2.26) m But we know that for a weak electrolyte like acetic acid (Class XI, Unit 7), c  2 cm2 c m2 K = = =   a 1   m m  m   m  (2.27) m 2 1     m  Applications of Kohlrausch law Using Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions, it is possible to calculate L0m for any electrolyte from the lo of individual ions. Moreover, for weak electrolytes like acetic acid it is possible to determine the value of its dissociation constant once we know the L0m and Lm at a given concentration c. ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.72.72.72.72.7 Calculate L0m for CaCl2 and MgSO4 from the data given in Table 3.4. SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution We know from Kohlrausch law that – = 119.0 S cm2 mol–1 + 2(76.3) S cm2 mol–1 m  CaCl 2  = Ca 2+  2 Cl = (119.0 + 152.6) S cm2 mol–1 = 271.6 S cm2 mol–1 2+  m  MgSO 4  = Mg  SO 2–4 = 106.0 S cm2 mol–1 + 160.0 S cm2 mol–1 = 266 S cm2 mol–1 . ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.82.82.82.82.8 L0m for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126.4, 425.9 and 91.0 S cm2 mol–1 respectively. Calculate L0 for HAc.       +  Ac – H + Cl – Ac – Na + Cl – Na + SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution m  HAc  = H = m  HCl   m  NaAc   m  NaCl  = (425.9 + 91.0 – 126.4 ) S cm2 mol –1 = 390.5 S cm2 mol–1 . ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.92.92.92.92.9 The conductivity of 0.001028 mol L–1 acetic acid is 4.95 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate its dissociation constant if L0m for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol–1.  4 . 95 10  5 Scm  1 1000cm 3 SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution m =  1  = 48.15 S cm3 mol–1 c 0 . 001028 mol L L m 48.15 Scm 2 mol 1 a =   2  1 = 0.1233 m 390.5 Scm mol c2 0 .001028molL–1  (0 .1233) 2 k = = 1.78 × 10–5 mol L–1  1   1  0 .1233 Chemistry 50 Reprint 2025-26 IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 2.7 Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution? 2.8 Suggest a way to determine the L°m value of water. 2.9 The molar conductivity of 0.025 mol L–1 methanoic acid is 46.1 S cm2 mol–1. Calculate its degree of dissociation and dissociation constant. Given l0(H+) = 349.6 S cm2 mol–1 and l0 (HCOO–) = 54.6 S cm2 mol–1. 2.52.52.52.52.5 ElectrolyticElectrolyticElectrolyticElectrolyticElectrolytic In an electrolytic cell external source of voltage is used to bring about a chemical reaction. The electrochemical processes are of great importance CellsCellsCellsCellsCells andandandandand in the laboratory and the chemical industry. One of the simplest electrolytic ElectrolysisElectrolysisElectrolysisElectrolysisElectrolysis cell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of copper sulphate. If a DC voltage is applied to the two electrodes, then Cu 2+ ions discharge at the cathode (negatively charged) and the following reaction takes place: Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ® Cu (s) (2.28) Copper metal is deposited on the cathode. At the anode, copper is converted into Cu2+ ions by the reaction: Cu(s) ® Cu2+(s) + 2e– (2.29) Thus copper is dissolved (oxidised) at anode and deposited (reduced) at cathode. This is the basis for an industrial process in which impure copper is converted into copper of high purity. The impure copper is made an anode that dissolves on passing current and pure copper is deposited at the cathode. Many metals like Na, Mg, Al, etc. are produced on large scale by electrochemical reduction of their respective cations where no suitable chemical reducing agents are available for this purpose. Sodium and magnesium metals are produced by the electrolysis of their fused chlorides and aluminium is produced by electrolysis of aluminium oxide in presence of cryolite. Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis Michael Faraday was the first scientist who described the quantitative aspects of electrolysis. Now Faraday’s laws also flow from what has been discussed earlier. Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis After his extensive investigations on electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes, Faraday published his results during 1833-34 in the form of the following well known Faraday’s two laws of electrolysis: (i) First Law: The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any electrode during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (solution or melt). (ii) Second Law: The amounts of different substances liberated by the same quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights (Atomic Mass of Metal ÷ Number of electrons required to reduce the cation). 51 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 There were no constant current sources available during Faraday’s times. The general practice was to put a coulometer (a standard electrolytic cell) for determining the quantity of electricity passed from the amount of metal (generally silver or copper) deposited or consumed. However, coulometers are now obsolete and we now have constant current (I) sources available and the quantity of electricity Q, passed is given by Q = It Q is in coloumbs when I is in ampere and t is in second. The amount of electricity (or charge) required for oxidation or reduction depends on the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction. For example, in the reaction: Ag +(aq) + e– ® Ag(s) (2.30) One mole of the electron is required for the reduction of one mole of silver ions. We know that charge on one electron is equal to 1.6021 × 10–19C. Therefore, the charge on one mole of electrons is equal to: NA × 1.6021 × 10–19 C = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1 × 1.6021 × 10–19 C = 96487 C mol–1 This quantity of electricity is called Faraday and is represented by the symbol F. For approximate calculations we use 1F ≃ 96500 C mol–1. For the electrode reactions: Mg2+(l) + 2e– ¾® Mg(s) (2.31) Al3+(l) + 3e– ¾® Al(s) (2.32) It is obvious that one mole of Mg2+ and Al3+ require 2 mol of electrons (2F) and 3 mol of electrons (3F) respectively. The charge passed through the electrolytic cell during electrolysis is equal to the product of current in amperes and time in seconds. In commercial production of metals, current as high as 50,000 amperes are used that amounts to about 0.518 F per second. ExampleExampleExampleExampleExample 2.102.102.102.102.10 A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of 1.5 amperes. What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode? SolutionSolutionSolutionSolutionSolution t = 600 s charge = current × time = 1.5 A × 600 s = 900 C According to the reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e– = Cu(s) We require 2F or 2 × 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu. For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited = (63 g mol–1 × 900 C)/(2 × 96487 C mol–1) = 0.2938 g. 2.5.1 Products of Products of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being Electrolysis electrolysed and the type of electrodes being used. If the electrode is inert (e.g., platinum or gold), it does not participate in the chemical reaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons. On the other hand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode reaction. Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert Chemistry 52 Reprint 2025-26 electrodes.The products of electrolysis depend on the different oxidising and reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their standard electrode potentials. Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes although feasible, are so slow kinetically that at lower voltages these do not seem to take place and extra potential (called overpotential) has to be applied, which makes such process more difficult to occur. For example, if we use molten NaCl, the products of electrolysis are sodium metal and Cl2 gas. Here we have only one cation (Na+) which is reduced at the cathode (Na+ + e– ® Na) and one anion (Cl–) which is oxidised at the anode (Cl– ® ½Cl2 + e– ). During the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride solution, the products are NaOH, Cl2 and H2. In this case besides Na+ and Cl– ions we also have H+ and OH– ions along with the solvent molecules, H2O. At the cathode there is competition between the following reduction reactions: Na+ (aq) + e– ® Na (s) E (ocell ) = – 2.71 V H+ (aq) + e– ® ½ H2 (g) E (ocell ) = 0.00 V The reaction with higher value of Eo is preferred and therefore, the reaction at the cathode during electrolysis is: H+ (aq) + e– ® ½ H2 (g) (2.33) but H+ (aq) is produced by the dissociation of H2O, i.e., H2O (l ) ® H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) (2.34) Therefore, the net reaction at the cathode may be written as the sum of (2.33) and (2.34) and we have H2O (l ) + e– ® ½H2(g) + OH– (2.35) At the anode the following oxidation reactions are possible: Cl– (aq) ® ½ Cl2 (g) + e– E (ocell ) = 1.36 V (2.36) 2H2O (l ) ® O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– E (ocell ) = 1.23 V (2.37) The reaction at anode with lower value of E o is preferred and therefore, water should get oxidised in preference to Cl– (aq). However, on account of overpotential of oxygen, reaction (2.36) is preferred. Thus, the net reactions may be summarised as: NaCl (aq) H 2 O → Na+ (aq) + Cl– (aq) Cathode: H2O(l ) + e– ® ½ H2(g) + OH– (aq) Anode: Cl– (aq) ® ½ Cl2(g) + e– Net reaction: NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ® Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) + ½H2(g) + ½Cl2(g) The standard electrode potentials are replaced by electrode potentials given by Nernst equation (Eq. 2.8) to take into account the concentration effects. During the electrolysis of sulphuric acid, the following processes are possible at the anode: 2H2O(l) ® O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– E (ocell ) = +1.23 V (2.38) 53 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 2SO42– (aq) ® S2O8 2– (aq) + 2e– E (ocell ) = 1.96 V (2.39) For dilute sulphuric acid, reaction (2.38) is preferred but at higher concentrations of H2SO4, reaction (2.39) is preferred. IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 2.10 If a current of 0.5 ampere flows through a metallic wire for 2 hours, then how many electrons would flow through the wire? 2.11 Suggest a list of metals that are extracted electrolytically. 2.12 Consider the reaction: Cr2O7 2– + 14H+ + 6e– ® 2Cr3+ + 7H2O What is the quantity of electricity in coulombs needed to reduce 1 mol of Cr2O7 2–? 2.62.62.62.62.6 BatteriesBatteriesBatteriesBatteriesBatteries Any battery (actually it may have one or more than one cell connected in series) or cell that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically a galvanic cell where the chemical energy of the redox reaction is converted into electrical energy. However, for a battery to be of practical use it should be reasonably light, compact and its voltage should not vary appreciably during its use. There are mainly two types of batteries. 2.6.1 Primary In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use Batteries over a period of time battery becomes dead and cannot be reused again. The most familiar example of this type is the dry cell (known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer) which is used commonly in our transistors and clocks. The cell consists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon (Fig.2.8). The space between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2). The electrode reactions are complex, but they can be written approximately as follows : Anode: Zn(s) ¾® Zn2+ + 2e– Cathode: MnO2+ NH4 ++ e–¾® MnO(OH) + NH3 In the reaction at cathode, manganese is reduced from the + 4 oxidation state to the +3 state. Ammonia produced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn2+ to give [Zn (NH3)4]2+. The cell has a potential of nearly 1.5 V. Mercury cell, (Fig. 2.9) suitable for low current devices like hearing aids, watches, etc. consists of zinc – mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the Fig. 2.8: A commercial dry cell cathode. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO. The consists of a graphite electrode reactions for the cell are given below: (carbon) cathode in a Anode: Zn(Hg) + 2OH– ¾® ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e– zinc container; the latter Cathode: HgO + H2O + 2e– ¾® Hg(l) + 2OH– acts as the anode. Chemistry 54 Reprint 2025-26 The overall reaction is represented by Zn(Hg) + HgO(s) ¾® ZnO(s) + Hg(l) The cell potential is approximately 1.35 V and remains constant during its Fig. 2.9 life as the overall reaction does not Commonly used involve any ion in solution whose mercury cell. The concentration can change during its life reducing agent is time. zinc and the oxidising agent is mercury (II) oxide. 2.6.2 Secondary A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current Batteries through it in the opposite direction so that it can be used again. A good secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging and charging cycles. The most important secondary cell is the lead storage battery (Fig. 2.10) commonly used in automobiles and invertors. It consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte. The cell reactions when the battery is in use are given below: Anode: Pb(s) + SO42–(aq) ® PbSO4(s) + 2e– Cathode: PbO2(s) + SO42–(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e– ® PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) i.e., overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) ® 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) On charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on anode and cathode is converted into Pb and PbO2, respectively. Fig. 2.10: The Lead storage battery. 55 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 Another important secondary cell is the nickel-cadmium cell (Fig. 2.11) which has longer life than the lead storage cell but Fig. 2.11 more expensive to manufacture. A rechargeable We shall not go into details of nickel-cadmium cell working of the cell and the Positive plate in a jelly roll electrode reactions during arrangement and Separator charging and discharging. separated by a layer Negative plate The overall reaction during soaked in moist discharge is: sodium or potassium hydroxide. Cd (s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) ® CdO (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + H2O (l ) 2.72.72.72.72.7 FuelFuelFuelFuelFuel CellsCellsCellsCellsCells Production of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method and is a major source of pollution. In such plants, the chemical energy (heat of combustion) of fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for converting water into high pressure steam. This is then used to run a turbine to produce electricity. We know that a galvanic cell directly converts chemical energy into electricity and is highly efficient. It is now possible to make such cells in which reactants are fed continuously to the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the electrolyte compartment. Galvanic cells that are designed to convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells. One of the most successful fuel cells uses the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water (Fig. 2.12). The cell was used for providing electrical power in the Apollo space programme. The water vapours produced during the reaction were condensed and added to the drinking water supply for the astronauts. In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen are bubbled through porous carbon electrodes into concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Catalysts like finely divided platinum or palladium metal are incorporated into the electrodes for increasing the rate of electrode Fig. 2.12: Fuel cell using H2 and O2 produces electricity. reactions. The electrode reactions are given below: Cathode: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–¾® 4OH–(aq) Anode: 2H2 (g) + 4OH–(aq) ¾® 4H2O(l) + 4e– Overall reaction being: 2H2(g) + O2(g) ¾® 2H2O(l ) The cell runs continuously as long as the reactants are supplied. Fuel cells produce electricity with an efficiency of about 70 % compared Chemistry 56 Reprint 2025-26 to thermal plants whose efficiency is about 40%. There has been tremendous progress in the development of new electrode materials, better catalysts and electrolytes for increasing the efficiency of fuel cells. These have been used in automobiles on an experimental basis. Fuel cells are pollution free and in view of their future importance, a variety of fuel cells have been fabricated and tried. 2.82.82.82.82.8 CorrosionCorrosionCorrosionCorrosionCorrosion Corrosion slowly coats the surfaces of metallic objects with oxides or other salts of the metal. The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, development of green coating on copper and bronze are some of the examples of corrosion. It causes enormous damage to buildings, bridges, ships and to all objects made of metals especially that of iron. We lose crores of rupees every year on account of corrosion. In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons to oxygen and formation of oxides. Corrosion of iron (commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of water and air. The chemistry of corrosion is quite complex but it may be considered Oxidation: Fe (s)® Fe2+ (aq) +2e– essentially as an electrochemical Reduction: O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) +4e– ® 2H2O(l) phenomenon. At a particular spot Atomospheric (Fig. 2.13) of an object made of iron,oxidation: 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + ½O2(g) ® Fe2O3(s) + 4H+(aq) oxidation takes place and that spot Fig. 2.13: Corrosion of iron in atmosphere behaves as anode and we can write the reaction E o Anode: 2 Fe (s) ¾® 2 Fe2+ + 4 e– (Fe 2+ /Fe) = – 0.44 V Electrons released at anodic spot move through the metal and go to another spot on the metal and reduce oxygen in the presence of H+ (which is believed to be available from H2CO3 formed due to dissolution of carbon dioxide from air into water. Hydrogen ion in water may also be available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the atmosphere). This spot behaves as cathode with the reaction E o =1.23 V Cathode: O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e– ¾® 2 H2O (l) H + | O 2 | H 2 O The overall reaction being: 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) ¾® 2Fe2 +(aq) + 2 H2O (l) E o(cell) =1.67 V The ferrous ions are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to ferric ions which come out as rust in the form of hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3. x H2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions. Prevention of corrosion is of prime importance. It not only saves money but also helps in preventing accidents such as a bridge collapse or failure of a key component due to corrosion. One of the simplest methods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic object to come in contact with atmosphere. This can be done by covering the surface with paint or by some chemicals (e.g. bisphenol). Another simple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn, etc.) that are inert or react to save the object. An electrochemical method is to provide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc.) which corrodes itself but saves the object. 57 Electrochemistry Reprint 2025-26 IntextIntextIntextIntextIntext QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 2.13 Write the chemistry of recharging the lead storage battery, highlighting all the materials that are involved during recharging. 2.14 Suggest two materials other than hydrogen that can be used as fuels in fuel cells. 2.15 Explain how rusting of iron is envisaged as setting up of an electrochemical cell. TheTheTheTheThe HydrogenHydrogenHydrogenHydrogenHydrogen EconomyEconomyEconomyEconomyEconomy At present the main source of energy that is driving our economy is fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. As more people on the planet aspire to improve their standard of living, their energy requirement will increase. In fact, the per capita consumption of energy used is a measure of development. Of course, it is assumed that energy is used for productive purpose and not merely wasted. We are already aware that carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil fuels is resulting in the ‘Greenhouse Effect’. This is leading to a rise in the temperature of the Earth’s surface, causing polar ice to melt and ocean levels to rise. This will flood low-lying areas along the coast and some island nations such as Maldives face total submergence. In order to avoid such a catastrope, we need to limit our use of carbonaceous fuels. Hydrogen provides an ideal alternative as its combustion results in water only. Hydrogen production must come from splitting water using solar energy. Therefore, hydrogen can be used as a renewable and non polluting source of energy. This is the vision of the Hydrogen Economy. Both the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water and hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell will be important in the future. And both these technologies are based on electrochemical principles. SummarySummarySummarySummarySummary An electrochemical cell consists of two metallic electrodes dipping in electrolytic solution(s). Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic conductor or electrolyte. Electrochemical cells are of two types. In galvanic cell, the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical work, whereas in an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a non- spontaneous redox reaction. The standard electrode potential for any electrode dipping in an appropriate solution is defined with respect to standard electrode potential of hydrogen electrode taken as zero. The standard potential of the cell can be obtained by taking the difference of the standard potentials of cathode and anode ( E (ocell ) = Eocathode – Eoanode). The standard potential of the cells are related to standard Gibbs energy (DrGo = –nF E (ocell ) ) and equilibrium constant (DrGo = – RT ln K) of the reaction taking place in the cell. Concentration dependence of the potentials of the electrodes and the cells are given by Nernst equation. The conductivity, k, of an electrolytic solution depends on the concentration of the electrolyte, nature of solvent and temperature. Molar conductivity, Lm, is defined by = k/c where c is the concentration. Conductivity decreases but molar conductivity increases with decrease in concentration. It increases slowly with decrease in concentration for strong electrolytes while the increase is very steep for weak electrolytes in very dilute solutions. Kohlrausch found that molar conductivity at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte is sum of the contribution of the Chemistry 58 Reprint 2025-26 molar conductivity of the ions in which it dissociates. It is known as law of independent migration of ions and has many applications. Ions conduct electricity through the solution but oxidation and reduction of the ions take place at the electrodes in an electrochemical cell. Batteries and fuel cells are very useful forms of galvanic cell. Corrosion of metals is essentially an electrochemical phenomenon. Electrochemical principles are relevant to the Hydrogen Economy. ExercisesExercisesExercisesExercisesExercises