3.5 DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND THE ORIGIN OF RESISTIVITY As remarked before, an electron will suffer collisions with the heavy fixed ions, but after collision, it will emerge with the same speed but in random directions. If we consider all the electrons, their average velocity will be zero since their directions are random. Thus, if there are N electrons and the velocity of the ith electron (i = 1, 2, 3, ... N ) at a given time is vi, then 1 N v i = 0 (3.14) N =∑i 1 Consider now the situation when an electric field is present. Electrons will be accelerated due to this field by – e E a = (3.15) m where –e is the charge and m is the mass of an electron. Consider again the ith electron at a given time t. This electron would have had its last collision some time before t, and let ti be the time elapsed after its last collision. If vi was its velocity immediately after the last collision, then its velocity Vi at time t is −e E Vi = v i + t i (3.16) m FIGURE 3.3 A schematic picture of since starting with its last collision it was accelerated an electron moving from a point A to (Fig. 3.3) with an acceleration given by Eq. (3.15) for a another point B through repeated time interval ti. The average velocity of the electrons at collisions, and straight line travel time t is the average of all the Vi’s. The average of vi’s is between collisions (full lines). If an electric field is applied as shown, thezero [Eq. (3.14)] since immediately after any collision, electron ends up at point B¢ (dotted the direction of the velocity of an electron is completely lines). A slight drift in a direction random. The collisions of the electrons do not occur at opposite the electric field is visible. regular intervals but at random times. Let us denote by t, the average time between successive collisions. Then 85 at a given time, some of the electrons would have spent Reprint 2025-26 Physics time more than t and some less than t. In other words, the time ti in Eq. (3.16) will be less than t for some and more than t for others as we go through the values of i = 1, 2 ..... N. The average value of ti then is t (known as relaxation time). Thus, averaging Eq. (3.16) over the N-electrons at any given time t gives us for the average velocity vd e E v d ≡ ( Vi )average = ( v i )average − ( t i )average m e E e E = 0 – τ = − τ (3.17) m m This last result is surprising. It tells us that the electrons move with an average velocity which is independent of time, although electrons are accelerated. This is the phenomenon of drift and the velocity vd in Eq. (3.17) is called the drift velocity. Because of the drift, there will be net transport of charges across any area perpendicular to E. Consider a planar area A, located inside the conductor such that FIGURE 3.4 Current in a metallic the normal to the area is parallel to E (Fig. 3.4). Then conductor. The magnitude of current because of the drift, in an infinitesimal amount of time density in a metal is the magnitude of Dt, all electrons to the left of the area at distances upto charge contained in a cylinder of unit |vd|Dt would have crossed the area. If n is the number area and length vd. of free electrons per unit volume in the metal, then there are n Dt |vd|A such electrons. Since each electron carries a charge –e, the total charge transported across this area A to the right in time Dt is –ne A|vd|Dt. E is directed towards the left and hence the total charge transported along E across the area is negative of this. The amount of charge crossing the area A in time Dt is by definition [Eq. (3.2)] I Dt, where I is the magnitude of the current. Hence, I ∆=t + n e A v d ∆t (3.18) Substituting the value of |vd| from Eq. (3.17) e 2 A I ∆=t τn ∆t E (3.19) m By definition I is related to the magnitude |j| of the current density by I = |j|A (3.20) Hence, from Eqs.(3.19) and (3.20), ne 2 j = τ E (3.21) m The vector j is parallel to E and hence we can write Eq. (3.21) in the vector form ne 2 j = τE (3.22) m Comparison with Eq. (3.13) shows that Eq. (3.22) is exactly the Ohm’s 86 law, if we identify the conductivity s as Reprint 2025-26 Current Electricity ne 2 σ = τ (3.23) m We thus see that a very simple picture of electrical conduction reproduces Ohm’s law. We have, of course, made assumptions that t and n are constants, independent of E. We shall, in the next section, discuss the limitations of Ohm’s law. Example 3.1 (a) Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional area 1.0 × 10–7 m2 carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes roughly one conduction electron. The density of copper is 9.0 × 103 kg/m3, and its atomic mass is 63.5 u. (b) Compare the drift speed obtained above with, (i) thermal speeds of copper atoms at ordinary temperatures, (ii) speed of propagation of electric field along the conductor which causes the drift motion. Solution (a) The direction of drift velocity of conduction electrons is opposite to the electric field direction, i.e., electrons drift in the direction of increasing potential. The drift speed vd is given by Eq. (3.18) vd = (I/neA) Now, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, A = 1.0 × 10–7m2, I = 1.5 A. The density of conduction electrons, n is equal to the number of atoms per cubic metre (assuming one conduction electron per Cu atom as is reasonable from its valence electron count of one). A cubic metre of copper has a mass of 9.0 × 103 kg. Since 6.0 × 1023 copper atoms have a mass of 63.5 g, 6.0 × 10 23 6 n = × 9.0 × 10 63.5 = 8.5 × 1028 m–3 which gives, 1.5 v d = 28 –19 –7 8.5 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 × 1.0 × 10 = 1.1 × 10–3 m s–1 = 1.1 mm s–1 (b) (i) At a temperature T, the thermal speed* of a copper atom of mass M is obtained from [<(1/2) Mv2 > = (3/2) kBT ] and is thus typically of the order of k B T/M , where kB is the Boltzmann constant. For copper at 300 K, this is about 2 × 102 m/s. This figure indicates the random vibrational speeds of copper atoms in a conductor. Note that the drift speed of electrons is much smaller, about 10–5 times the typical thermal speed at ordinary temperatures. (ii) An electric field travelling along the conductor has a speed of an electromagnetic wave, namely equal to 3.0 × 108 m s–1 EXAMPLE (You will learn about this in Chapter 8). The drift speed is, in comparison, extremely small; smaller by a factor of 10–11. 3.1 * See Eq. (12.23) of Chapter 12 from Class XI book. 87 Reprint 2025-26 Physics Example 3.2 (a) In Example 3.1, the electron drift speed is estimated to be only a few mm s–1 for currents in the range of a few amperes? How then is current established almost the instant a circuit is closed? (b) The electron drift arises due to the force experienced by electrons in the electric field inside the conductor. But force should cause acceleration. Why then do the electrons acquire a steady average drift speed? (c) If the electron drift speed is so small, and the electron’s charge is small, how can we still obtain large amounts of current in a conductor? (d) When electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential, does it mean that all the ‘free’ electrons of the metal are moving in the same direction? (e) Are the paths of electrons straight lines between successive collisions (with the positive ions of the metal) in the (i) absence of electric field, (ii) presence of electric field? Solution (a) Electric field is established throughout the circuit, almost instantly (with the speed of light) causing at every point a local electron drift. Establishment of a current does not have to wait for electrons from one end of the conductor travelling to the other end. However, it does take a little while for the current to reach its steady value. (b) Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate, increasing its drift speed until it collides with a positive ion of the metal. It loses its drift speed after collision but starts to accelerate and increases its drift speed again only to suffer a collision again and so on. On the average, therefore, electrons acquire only a drift speed. 3.2 (c) Simple,~1029 m–3.because the electron number density is enormous, (d) By no means. The drift velocity is superposed over the large random velocities of electrons. (e) In the absence of electric field, the paths are straight lines; in the EXAMPLE presence of electric field, the paths are, in general, curved. 3.5.1 Mobility As we have seen, conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In metals, these mobile charge carriers are electrons; in an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions; in an electrolyte, these can be both positive and negative ions. An important quantity is the mobility m defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field: | vd | µ= (3.24) E The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is 104 of the mobility in practical units (cm2/Vs). Mobility is positive. From Eq. (3.17), we have e τ E 88 vd = m Reprint 2025-26 Current Electricity Hence, v d eτ µ= = (3.25) E m where t is the average collision time for electrons.

3.3 At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the temperature of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1. 105 Reprint 2025-26 Physics 3.4 A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section 6.0 × 10–7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 W. What is the resistivity of the material at the temperature of the experiment? 3.5 A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 W at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 W at 100 °C. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver. 3.6 A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 A which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of the heating element if the room temperature is 27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome averaged over the temperature range involved is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1. 3.7 Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in Fig. 3.20: FIGURE 3.20 3.8 A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 W is being charged by a 120 V dc supply using a series resistor of 15.5 W. What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging? What is the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit? 3.9 The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor estimated in Example 3.1 is 8.5 × 1028 m–3. How long does an electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The area of cross-section of the wire is 2.0 × 10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A. Reprint 2025-26 Chapter Four MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM 4.1 INTRODUCTION Both Electricity and Magnetism have been known for more than 2000 years. However, it was only about 200 years ago, in 1820, that it was realised that they were intimately related. During a lecture demonstration in the summer of 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a straight wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby magnetic compass needle. He investigated this phenomenon. He found that the alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle which has the straight wire as its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the wire. This situation is depicted in Fig.4.1(a). It is noticeable when the current is large and the needle sufficiently close to the wire so that the earth’s magnetic field may be ignored. Reversing the direction of the current reverses the orientation of the needle [Fig. 4.1(b)]. The deflection increases on increasing the current or bringing the needle closer to the wire. Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arrange themselves in concentric circles with the wire as the centre [Fig. 4.1(c)]. Oersted concluded that moving charges or currents produced a magnetic field in the surrounding space. Following this, there was intense experimentation. In 1864, the laws obeyed by electricity and magnetism were unified and formulated by Reprint 2025-26 Physics James Maxwell who then realised that light was electromagnetic waves. Radio waves were discovered by Hertz, and produced by J.C.Bose and G. Marconi by the end of the 19th century. A remarkable scientific and technological progress took place in the 20th century. This was due to our increased understanding of electromagnetism and the invention of devices for production, amplification, transmission and detection of electromagnetic waves. FIGURE 4.1 The magnetic field due to a straight long current-carrying wire. The wire is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. A ring of compass needles surrounds the wire. The orientation of the needles is shown when (a) the current emerges out of the plane of the paper, (b) the current moves into the plane of the paper. (c) The arrangement of iron filings around the wire. The darkened ends of the needle represent north poles. The effect of the earth’s magnetic field is neglected. In this chapter, we will see how magnetic field exerts forces on moving charged particles, like electrons, protons, and current-carrying wires. We shall also learn how currents produce magnetic fields. We shall see how particles can be accelerated to very high energies in a cyclotron. We shall study how currents and voltages are detected by a galvanometer.(1777–1851) In this and subsequent Chapter on magnetism, we adopt the following convention: A current or a field (electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of the paper is depicted by a dot (¤). A current or a field going into the plane of the paper is depicted by a cross ()*. Hans Christian Oersted Figures. 4.1(a) and 4.1(b) correspond to these twoOERSTED (1777–1851) Danish situations, respectively. physicist and chemist, professor at Copenhagen. 4.2 MAGNETIC FORCE He observed that a compass needle suffers a 4.2.1 Sources and fields deflection when placed Before we introduce the concept of a magnetic field B, weCHRISTIAN near a wire carrying an electric current. This shall recapitulate what we have learnt in Chapter 1 about discovery gave the first the electric field E. We have seen that the interaction empirical evidence of a between two charges can be considered in two stages.HANS connection between electric The charge Q, the source of the field, produces an electric and magnetic phenomena. field E, where * A dot appears like the tip of an arrow pointed at you, a cross is like the feathered 108 tail of an arrow moving away from you. Reprint 2025-26 Moving Charges and Magnetism E = Q ˆr / (4pe0)r2 (4.1) where ˆr is unit vector along r, and the field E is a vector field. A charge q interacts with this field and experiences a force F given by F = q E = q Q ˆr / (4pe0) r 2 (4.2) As pointed out in the Chapter 1, the field E is not just an artefact but has a physical role. It can convey energy and momentum and is not established instantaneously but takes finite time to propagate. The concept of a field was specially stressed by Faraday and was incorporated by Maxwell in his unification of electricity and magnetism. In addition to depending on each point in space, it can also vary with time, i.e., be a function of time. In our Hendrik Antoon Lorentz discussions in this chapter, we will assume that the fields (1853 – 1928) Dutch do not change with time. theoretical physicist, The field at a particular point can be due to one or professor at Leiden. He investigated themore charges. If there are more charges the fields add HENDRIK relationship between vectorially. You have already learnt in Chapter 1 that this electricity, magnetism, and is called the principle of superposition. Once the field is mechanics. In order to known, the force on a test charge is given by Eq. (4.2). explain the observed effect Just as static charges produce an electric field, the of magnetic fields on ANTOONcurrents or moving charges produce (in addition) a emitters of light (Zeeman magnetic field, denoted by B (r), again a vector field. It effect), he postulated the existence of electric chargeshas several basic properties identical to the electric field. in the atom, for which he It is defined at each point in space (and can in addition was awarded the Nobel Prize depend on time). Experimentally, it is found to obey the in 1902. He derived a set of LORENTZprinciple of superposition: the magnetic field of several transformation equations sources is the vector addition of magnetic field of each (known after him, as individual source. Lorentz transformation equations) by some tangled (1853 4.2.2 Magnetic Field, Lorentz Force mathematical arguments, – but he was not aware thatLet us suppose that there is a point charge q (moving these equations hinge on a with a velocity v and, located at r at a given time t) in new concept of space andpresence of both the electric field E (r) and the magnetic 1928) time. field B (r). The force on an electric charge q due to both of them can be written as F = q [ E (r) + v × B (r)] º Felectric +Fmagnetic (4.3) This force was given first by H.A. Lorentz based on the extensive experiments of Ampere and others. It is called the Lorentz force. You have already studied in detail the force due to the electric field. If we look at the interaction with the magnetic field, we find the following features. (i) It depends on q, v and B (charge of the particle, the velocity and the magnetic field). Force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge. (ii) The magnetic force q [ v × B ] includes a vector product of velocity 109 and magnetic field. The vector product makes the force due to magnetic Reprint 2025-26 Physics field vanish (become zero) if velocity and magnetic field are parallel or anti-parallel. The force acts in a (sideways) direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field. Its direction is given by the screw rule or right hand rule for vector (or cross) product as illustrated in Fig. 4.2. (iii) The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then |v|= 0). Only a moving charge feels the magnetic force. The expression for the magnetic force helps us to define the unit of the magnetic field, if one FIGURE 4.2 The direction of the magnetic takes q, F and v, all to be unity in the force force acting on a charged particle. (a) The equation F = q [ v × B] =q v B sin q ˆn , where q is force on a positively charged particle with the angle between v and B [see Fig. 4.2 (a)]. The velocity v and making an angle q with the magnitude of magnetic field B is 1 SI unit, when magnetic field B is given by the right-hand the force acting on a unit charge (1 C), moving rule. (b) A moving charged particle q is perpendicular to B with a speed 1m/s, is one deflected in an opposite sense to –q in the newton. presence of magnetic field. Dimensionally, we have [B] = [F/qv] and the unit of B are Newton second / (coulomb metre). This unit is called tesla (T) named after Nikola Tesla (1856 – 1943). Tesla is a rather large unit. A smaller unit (non-SI) called gauss (=10–4 tesla) is also often used. The earth’s magnetic field is about 3.6 × 10–5 T. 4.2.3 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor We can extend the analysis for force due to magnetic field on a single moving charge to a straight rod carrying current. Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length l. We shall assume one kind of mobile carriers as in a conductor (here electrons). Let the number density of these mobile charge carriers in it be n. Then the total number of mobile charge carriers in it is nlA. For a steady current I in this conducting rod, we may assume that each mobile carrier has an average drift velocity vd (see Chapter 3). In the presence of an external magnetic field B, the force on these carriers is: F = (nlA)q vd ´ B where q is the value of the charge on a carrier. Now nq vd is the current density j and |(nq vd)|A is the current I (see Chapter 3 for the discussion of current and current density). Thus, F = [(nq vd )lA] × B = [ jAl ] ´ B = Il ´ B (4.4) where l is a vector of magnitude l, the length of the rod, and with a direction identical to the current I. Note that the current I is not a vector. In the last step leading to Eq. (4.4), we have transferred the vector sign from j to l. Equation (4.4) holds for a straight rod. In this equation, B is the external magnetic field. It is not the field produced by the current-carrying rod. If the wire has an arbitrary shape we can calculate the Lorentz force on it by considering it as a collection of linear strips dlj and summing F  Idl j × B j This summation can be converted to an integral in most cases. Reprint 2025-26 Moving Charges and Magnetism Example 4.1 A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B (Fig. 4.3). What is the magnitude of the magnetic field? FIGURE 4.3 Solution From Eq. (4.4), we find that there is an upward force F, of magnitude IlB,. For mid-air suspension, this must be balanced by the force due to gravity: m g = I lB m g B = I l Interactive Charged 0.2 × 9.8 = = 0.65 T 2 × 1.5 Note that it would have been sufficient to specify m/l, the mass per EXAMPLE particles unit length of the wire. The earth’s 4 × 10–5 T and we have ignored it. magnetic field is approximately 4.1 moving demonstration: in a Example 4.2 If the magnetic field is parallel to the positive y-axis and the charged particle is moving along the positive x-axis (Fig. 4.4), which way would the Lorentz force be for (a) an electron (negative magnetic charge), (b) a proton (positive charge). field. http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/optics/java/partmagn/index.html FIGURE 4.4 Solution The velocity v of particle is along the x-axis, while B, the magnetic field is along the y-axis, so v × B is along the z-axis (screw rule or right-hand thumb rule). So, (a) for electron it will be along –z EXAMPLE axis. (b) for a positive charge (proton) the force is along +z axis. 4.2 111 Reprint 2025-26 Physics 4.3 MOTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD We will now consider, in greater detail, the motion of a charge moving in a magnetic field. We have learnt in Mechanics (see Class XI book, Chapter 5) that a force on a particle does work if the force has a component along (or opposed to) the direction of motion of the particle. In the case of motion of a charge in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. So no work is done and no change in the magnitude of the velocity is produced (though the direction of momentum may be changed). [Notice that this is unlike the force due to an electric field, qE, which can have a component parallel (or antiparallel) to motion and thus can transfer energy in addition to momentum.] We shall consider motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. First consider the case of v perpendicular to B. The perpendicular force, q v × B, acts as a centripetal force and produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field. The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular to each other (Fig. 4.5). If velocity has a component along B, this component remains unchanged as the motion along the magnetic field will not be affected by the magnetic field. The motion in a plane perpendicular to B is as before a circular one, thereby producing a helical motion (Fig. 4.6). You have already learnt in earlier classes (See Class XI, Chapter 3) that if r is the radius of the circular path of a particle, then a force of m v2 / r, acts perpendicular to the path towards the centre of the circle, and is called the centripetal force. If the FIGURE 4.5 Circular motion velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, the magnetic force is perpendicular to both v and B and acts like a centripetal force. It has a magnitude q v B. Equating the two expressions for centripetal force, m v 2/r = q v B, which gives r = m v / qB (4.5) for the radius of the circle described by the charged particle. The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius and bigger the circle described. If w is the angular frequency, then v = w r. So, w = 2p n = q B/ m [4.6(a)] which is independent of the velocity or energy . Here n is the frequency of rotation. The independence of n from energy has important application in the design of a cyclotron. The time taken for one revolution is T= 2p/ w º 1/n. If there is a component of the velocity FIGURE 4.6 Helical motion parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by v||), 112 it will make the particle move along the field and the path of the Reprint 2025-26 Moving Charges and Magnetism particle would be a helical one (Fig. 4.6). The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p. Using Eq. [4.6 (a)], we have p = v||T = 2pm v|| / q B [4.6(b)] The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of the helix. Example 4.3 What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass 9 × 10-31 kg and charge 1.6 × 10–19 C) moving at a speed of 3 ×107 m/s in a magnetic field of 6 × 10–4 T perpendicular to it? What is its frequency? Calculate its energy in keV. ( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J). Solution Using Eq. (4.5) we find r = m v / (qB) = 9 ×10–31 kg × 3 × 107 m s–1 / ( 1.6 × 10–19 C × 6 × 10–4 T) = 28 × 10–2 m = 28 cm n = v / (2 pr) = 17×106 s–1 = 17×106 Hz =17 MHz. 2 EXAMPLE E = (½ )mv = (½ ) 9 × 10–31 kg × 9 × 1014 m2/s2 = 40.5 ×10–17 J ≈ 4×10–16 J = 2.5 keV. 4.3

2.8 In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area of 6 × 10–3 m2 and the distance between the plates is 3 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is connected to a 100 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor? 79 Reprint 2025-26 Physics 2.9 Explain what would happen if in the capacitor given in Exercise 2.8, a 3 mm thick mica sheet (of dielectric constant = 6) were inserted between the plates, (a) while the voltage supply remained connected. (b) after the supply was disconnected. 2.10 A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much electrostatic energy is stored in the capacitor? 2.11 A 600pF capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It is then disconnected from the supply and is connected to another uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost in the process? Reprint 2025-26 Chapter Three CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 1, all charges whether free or bound, were considered to be at rest. Charges in motion constitute an electric current. Such currents occur naturally in many situations. Lightning is one such phenomenon in which charges flow from the clouds to the earth through the atmosphere, sometimes with disastrous results. The flow of charges in lightning is not steady, but in our everyday life we see many devices where charges flow in a steady manner, like water flowing smoothly in a river. A torch and a cell-driven clock are examples of such devices. In the present chapter, we shall study some of the basic laws concerning steady electric currents. 3.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT Imagine a small area held normal to the direction of flow of charges. Both the positive and the negative charges may flow forward and backward across the area. In a given time interval t, let q+ be the net amount (i.e., forward minus backward) of positive charge that flows in the forward direction across the area. Similarly, let q– be the net amount of negative charge flowing across the area in the forward direction. The net amount of charge flowing across the area in the forward direction in the time interval t, then, is q = q+– q–. This is proportional to t for steady current Reprint 2025-26 Physics and the quotient q I = (3.1) t is defined to be the current across the area in the forward direction. (If it turn out to be a negative number, it implies a current in the backward direction.) Currents are not always steady and hence more generally, we define the current as follows. Let DQ be the net charge flowing across a cross- section of a conductor during the time interval Dt [i.e., between times t and (t + Dt)]. Then, the current at time t across the cross-section of the conductor is defined as the value of the ratio of DQ to Dt in the limit of Dt tending to zero, ∆Q lim (3.2) I (t ) ≡ t 0 ∆→ ∆t In SI units, the unit of current is ampere. An ampere is defined through magnetic effects of currents that we will study in the following chapter. An ampere is typically the order of magnitude of currents in domestic appliances. An average lightning carries currents of the order of tens of thousands of amperes and at the other extreme, currents in our nerves are in microamperes. 3.3 ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CONDUCTORS An electric charge will experience a force if an electric field is applied. If it is free to move, it will thus move contributing to a current. In nature, free charged particles do exist like in upper strata of atmosphere called the ionosphere. However, in atoms and molecules, the negatively charged electrons and the positively charged nuclei are bound to each other and are thus not free to move. Bulk matter is made up of many molecules, a gram of water, for example, contains approximately 1022 molecules. These molecules are so closely packed that the electrons are no longer attached to individual nuclei. In some materials, the electrons will still be bound, i.e., they will not accelerate even if an electric field is applied. In other materials, notably metals, some of the electrons are practically free to move within the bulk material. These materials, generally called conductors, develop electric currents in them when an electric field is applied. If we consider solid conductors, then of course the atoms are tightly bound to each other so that the current is carried by the negatively charged electrons. There are, however, other types of conductors like electrolytic solutions where positive and negative charges both can move. In our discussions, we will focus only on solid conductors so that the current is carried by the negatively charged electrons in the background of fixed positive ions. Consider first the case when no electric field is present. The electrons will be moving due to thermal motion during which they collide with the fixed ions. An electron colliding with an ion emerges with the same speed as before the collision. However, the direction of its velocity after the collision is completely random. At a given time, there is no preferential 82 direction for the velocities of the electrons. Thus on the average, the Reprint 2025-26 Current Electricity number of electrons travelling in any direction will be equal to the number of electrons travelling in the opposite direction. So, there will be no net electric current. Let us now see what happens to such a piece of conductor if an electric field is applied. To focus our thoughts, imagine the conductor in the shape of a cylinder of radius R (Fig. 3.1). Suppose we now take two thin circular discs FIGURE 3.1 Charges +Q and –Q put at the ends of a dielectric of the same radius and put of a metallic cylinder. The electrons will drift positive charge +Q distributed over one disc because of the electric field created to and similarly –Q at the other disc. We attach neutralise the charges. The current thus the two discs on the two flat surfaces of the will stop after a while unless the charges +Q cylinder. An electric field will be created and and –Q are continuously replenished. is directed from the positive towards the negative charge. The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will thus move to neutralise the charges. The electrons, as long as they are moving, will constitute an electric current. Hence in the situation considered, there will be a current for a very short while and no current thereafter. We can also imagine a mechanism where the ends of the cylinder are supplied with fresh charges to make up for any charges neutralised by electrons moving inside the conductor. In that case, there will be a steady electric field in the body of the conductor. This will result in a continuous current rather than a current for a short period of time. Mechanisms, which maintain a steady electric field are cells or batteries that we shall study later in this chapter. In the next sections, we shall study the steady current that results from a steady electric field in conductors.