1.4 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For example, the dimensional formula of the volume The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of in terms of some combination of seven mass density. fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current the equations, which represent the dimensions [A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous of a physical quantity in terms of the base intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. quantities. For example, the dimensional The dimensions of a physical quantity are the equations of volume [V], speed [v], force [F ] and powers (or exponents) to which the base mass density [ρ] may be expressed as quantities are raised to represent that [V] = [M0 L3 T0] quantity. Note that using the square brackets [v] = [M0 L T–1] [ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing [F] = [M L T–2] with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity. [ρ] = [M L–3 T0] In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] The dimensional equation can be obtained and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by from the equation representing the relations between the physical quantities. Thean object is expressed as the product of length, dimensional formulae of a large number andbreadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the wide variety of physical quantities, derived fromdimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3]. the equations representing the relationships As the volume is independent of mass and time, among other physical quantities and expressed it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°], in terms of base quantities are given in zero dimension in time [T°] and three Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready dimensions in length. reference. Similarly, force, as the product of mass and acceleration, can be expressed as 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS Force = mass × acceleration APPLICATIONS = mass × (length)/(time)2 The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 = guide the description of physical behaviour is [M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in of basic importance as only those physical Reprint 2025-26 8 PHYSICS quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length), have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no in deducing certain relations among different dimensions. physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation homogeneity of various mathematical 2expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v 0 t + (1/2 ) a t physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniformidentical units in the numerator and acceleration a along the direction of motion. denominator. The same is true for dimensions The dimensions of each term may be written as of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical [x] = [L] quantities represented by symbols on both sides of a mathematical equation must have the same [x0 ] = [L] dimensions. [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T] = [L] [(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]1.6.1 Checking the Dimensional Consistency of Equations = [L] As each term on the right hand side of this The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation. quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a from the thermodynamic temperature. This test of consistency of units, but has the simple principle called the principle of advantage that we need not commit ourselves homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is to a particular choice of units, and we need not extremely useful in checking the correctness of worry about conversions among multiples and an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if mind that if an equation fails this consistency we derive an expression for the length (or test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct appearing in the original mathematical relation, equation need not be actually an exact when all the individual dimensions are (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong simplified, the remaining dimension must be (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation wrong. of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of ⊳equation, when simplified, must be of length/ Example 1.3 Let us consider an equation time, or [L T–1]. Dimensions are customarily used as a 1 2 m v = m g h preliminary test of the consistency of an 2 equation, when there is some doubt about the where m is the mass of the body, v its correctness of the equation. However, the velocity, g is the acceleration due to dimensional consistency does not guarantee gravity and h is the height. Check correct equations. It is uof dimensionless quantities or functions. The correct. arguments of special functions, such as the trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential Answer The dimensions of LHS are functions must be dimensionless. A pure [M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2] number, ratio of similar physical quantities, = [M L2 T–2] Reprint 2025-26 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 9 The dimensions of RHS are string, that oscillates under the action of [M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] the force of gravity. Suppose that the period = [M L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of the bobThe dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and hence the equation is dimensionally correct. ⊳ (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the expression for its time period ⊳ using method of dimensions. Example 1.4 The SI unit of energy is J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and Answer The dependence of time period T on of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the the quantities l, g and m as a product may be formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below written as : can you rule out on the basis of T = k lx gy mz dimensional arguments (m stands for the mass of the body) : where k is dimensionless constant and x, y (a) K = m2 v3 and z are the exponents. (b) K = (1/2)mv2 By considering dimensions on both sides, we (c) K = ma have (d) K = (3/16)mv2 o o 1 1 x 1 –2 y 1 z [L M T ]=[L ] [L T ] [M ] (e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma = Lx+y T–2y Mz Answer Every correct formula or equation must On equating the dimensions on both sides, have the same dimensions on both sides of the we have equation. Also, only quantities with the same x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0 physical dimensions can be added or 1 1 subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on So that x = , y = – , z = 0 2 2the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for (b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the Then, T = k l½ g–½ right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since two quantities of different dimensions have been l or, T = kadded. Since the kinetic energy K has the g dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e) Note that value of constant k can not be obtainedare ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments by the method of dimensions. Here it does notcannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the matter if some number multiplies the right sidecorrect formula. For this, one must turn to the of this formula, because that does not affect itsactual definition of kinetic energy (see dimensions.Chapter 5). The correct formula for kinetic energy is given by (b). ⊳ l Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π ⊳ 1.6.2 Deducing Relation among the g Physical Quantities The method of dimensions can sometimes be Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing used to deduce relation among the physical relations among the interdependent physical quantities. For this we should know the quantities. However, dimensionless constants dependence of the physical quantity on other cannot be obtained by this method. The method quantities (upto three physical quantities or of dimensions can only test the dimensional linearly independent variables) and consider it validity, but not the exact relationship between as a product type of the dependence. Let us take physical quantities in any equation. It does not an example. distinguish between the physical quantities having same dimensions.⊳ Example 1.5 Consider a simple A number of exercises at the end of this pendulum, having a bob attached to a chapter will help you develop skill in dimensional analysis. Reprint 2025-26 10 PHYSICS SUMMARY 1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity). 2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base units. 3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units. 4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world. 5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc). 6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.). 7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision of the numbers. 8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements. 9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired units are obtained. 10. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained. Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the u 11. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical quantities, etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong. EXERCISES Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures. 1.1 Fill in the blanks (a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3 (b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to ...(mm)2 (c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s (d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3. 1.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units (a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2 (b) 1 m = ..... ly (c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2 (d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1. Reprint 2025-26 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 11 1.3 A calorie is a unit of heat (energy in transit) and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1 kg m2 s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α kg, the unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a magnitude 4.2 α–1 β–2 γ 2 in terms of the new units. 1.4 Explain this statement clearly : “To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever necessary : (a) atoms are very small objects (b) a jet plane moves with great speed (c) the mass of Jupiter is very large (d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules (e) a proton is much more massive than an electron (f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light. 1.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes 8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ? 1.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length : (a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale (b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale (c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ? 1.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the estimate on the thickness of hair ? 1.8 Answer the following : (a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of the thread ? (b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ? (c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ? 1.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement. 1.10 State the number of significant figures in the following : (a) 0.007 m2 (b) 2.64 × 1024 kg (c) 0.2370 g cm–3 (d) 6.320 J (e) 6.032 N m–2 (f) 0.0006032 m2 1.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figures. 1.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ? 1.13 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes : m 0 m = 2 1/2 . 1 − v ( ) Guess where to put the missing c. Reprint 2025-26 12 PHYSICS 1.14 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ? 1.15 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L (molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio so large ? 1.16 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.) seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these distant objects seem to move with you). 1.17 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding 107 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the Sun = 2.0 ×1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m. Reprint 2025-26 CHAPTER TWO MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 2.1 INTRODUCTION Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk, run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves 2.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and 2.2 Instantaneous velocity and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing speed down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one 2.3 Acceleration place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four 2.4 Kinematic equations for hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun uniformly accelerated motion itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving

5.2 Notions of work and kinetic landscape, all are said to be working. In physics, however, energy : The work-energy the word ‘Work’ covers a definite and precise meaning. theorem Somebody who has the capacity to work for 14-16 hours a5.3 Work day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We admire a

8.2 STRESS AND STRAIN forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional When forces are applied on a body in such a area of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 8.1(b), manner that the body is still in static equilibrium, there is relative displacement between the it is deformed to a small or large extent depending opposite faces of the cylinder. The restoring force upon the nature of the material of the body and per unit area developed due to the applied the magnitude of the deforming force. The tangential force is known as tangential or deformation may not be noticeable visually in shearing stress. many materials but it is there. When a body is As a result of applied tangential force, there subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is a relative displacement ∆x between opposite is developed in the body. This restoring force is faces of the cylinder as shown in the Fig. 8.1(b). equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to The strain so produced is known as shearing the applied force. The restoring force per unit area strain and it is defined as the ratio of relative is known as stress. If F is the force applied normal displacement of the faces ∆x to the length of the to the cross–section and A is the area of cross cylinder L. section of the body, ∆x Magnitude of the stress = F/A (8.1) Shearing strain = = tan θ (8.3) L The SI unit of stress is N m–2 or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ ML–1T–2 ]. where θ is the angular displacement of the There are three ways in which a solid may cylinder from the vertical (original position of the change its dimensions when an external force cylinder). Usually θ is very small, tan θ acts on it. These are shown in Fig. 8.1. In is nearly equal to angle θ, (if θ = 10°, for Fig.8.1(a), a cylinder is stretched by two equal example, there is only 1% difference between θ forces applied normal to its cross-sectional area. and tan θ). The restoring force per unit area in this case is It can also be visualised, when a book is called tensile stress. If the cylinder is pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally, compressed under the action of applied forces, as shown in Fig. 8.2 (c). the restoring force per unit area is known as Thus, shearing strain = tan θ ≈ θ (8.4) compressive stress. Tensile or compressive In Fig. 8.1 (d), a solid sphere placed in the fluid stress can also be termed as longitudinal stress. under high pressure is compressed uniformly on In both the cases, there is a change in the all sides. The force applied by the fluid acts in length of the cylinder. The change in the length perpendicular direction at each point of the ∆L to the original length L of the body (cylinder surface and the body is said to be under in this case) is known as longitudinal strain. hydraulic compression. This leads to decrease (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig. 8.1 (a) A cylindrical body under tensile stress elongates by ∆L (b) Shearing stress on a cylinder deforming it by an angle θ(c) A body subjected to shearing stress (d) A solid body under a stress normal to the surface at every point (hydraulic stress). The volumetric strain is ∆V/V, but there is no change in shape. Reprint 2025-26 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 169 in its volume without any change of its compression and shear stress may also be geometrical shape. obtained. The stress-strain curves vary from The body develops internal restoring forces material to material. These curves help us to that are equal and opposite to the forces applied understand how a given material deforms with by the fluid (the body restores its original shape increasing loads. From the graph, we can see and size when taken out from the fluid). The that in the region between O to A, the curve is internal restoring force per unit area in this case linear. In this region, Hooke’s law is obeyed. is known as hydraulic stress and in magnitude The body regains its original dimensions when is equal to the hydraulic pressure (applied force the applied force is removed. In this region, the per unit area). solid behaves as an elastic body. The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure is called volume strain and is defined as the ratio of change in volume (∆V) to the original volume (V). ∆V Volume strain = (8.5) V Since the strain is a ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension, it has no units or dimensional formula.